AP PSYCH TEST

Neurons: nerve cells

Basic building block of nervous system and sends and receives messages from other neurons in the body.

Cell body (soma)

Produces energy that fuels the activity of the cell

Dendrites

Thin fibers that receive the message from other neurons and pass the message through TO the cell body

axon

Carries messages away from cell body, and can be very long

Direction of messages in neuron

enters dendrites, through cell body, and out the axon to the next neuron.

Myelin

A white fatty substance that insulates and protects the neuron. It also speeds up the transmission of the message.

Axon terminal/terminal buttons:

The very end, where small fibers come out of the axon. Contains neurotransmitters

Synapse

the 'gap' between the axon terminal of the sending neuron, and the dendrite of the receiving neuron.

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell

synaptic vesticles

saclike structures found inside the synaptic knob containing chemicals

Neurotransmitters

chemicals stored in sacs in the axon terminals and a neuron sends its message (known as 'firing') by releasing certain neurotransmitters

Reuptake

process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles

Receptor

protein that detects a signal molecule and performs an action in response

Sensory/Afferent neurons:

Carry impulses TO the brain (sensations)

Motor/Efferent neurons:

Carry instructions from the CNS to the body (to move)

Glial cells

cells: support for other neurons, nourishment, remove waste

Mirror Neurons

fire when observing others

Neutral transmission:Resting potential, action potential, refractory period, all or non principal, threshold

The neuron contains charged ions that flow in and out of the axon to create energy to transmit a message

Resting potential -

when a neuron is not currently sending a message

Action potential

brief electrical charge when message is sent

Refractory period

small down time when a neuron cannot fire again

All or none principle

- a neuron can either fire or not. There is no partial firing

Threshold

in order to fire you have to meet a minimum activity point. This is the threshold.

Agonist

Turn on neurotransmitter makes it do more ("excites" it)

* Stimulates more NT release

Antagonist-

Turns off neurotransmitter, blocks it, ("depresses" it)

Suppresses NT from being released

Ach

\-Vital to learning and memory

* Also motor and skeletal muscles
* When Ach is released the muscles contract
* If it is blocked muscles can’t control

Curare

poison put on S. American hunting darts...paralyze the animal

Botox

block release of Ach - paralyze facial muscles

Black widow spider

causes flood of Ach - Violent muscle contractions, convulsions, and possible death

Oxycitocin

love hormone

Dopamine Brain stem

Governs motor control;

too little- implicated in parkinson’s

excess- linked to schizophrenia

Reward pathway of brain - opium, heroin, nicotine

increase dopamine

Norephinphrine Brain; Spinal Cord

Undersupply depression

Oversupply agitation, insomnia

Serotonin Brain Stem

Regulates sleep, arousal, mood, anxiety, OCD

involved in depression

prozac- increases serotonin

Drink warm milk at night - amino acids to produce serotonin

GABA Brain and spinal cord and motor nerves

Improves signal precision \n Suppresses anxiety \n Huntington's disease \n Valium increases GABA \n Best known inhibitory neurotransmitter

Glutamate Brain; Spinal Cord

Oversupply can over stimulate the brain causing migraines or seizures, why some avoid MSG (monosodium glutamate) in food

excess - ALS (Lou Gehrig's Disease) \n lack of - negative symptoms in Schizophrenia

ACh Spinal cord Skeletal muscles

Facilitates muscle contractions

Alzheimer’s disease

Endorphins spinal cord

released in response to pain or exercise (runners high)

Structurally similar to opiates heroin and morphine - \n pain reduction, pleasure \n NT that allows hibernation - slows, heart rate, \n respiration, and metabolism

Hindbrain

(medulla, pons, cerebellum)

Medulla:

vital functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing

Begins were the spinal cord enters the skull

Pons:

regulating attention, and sleep

Way to remember - A tranquil POND - calm and sleep inducing

Cerebellum:

"little brain" balance and coordination, also patterns of movement

\-If damaged or movements would become uncoordinated and jerky. \n -Procedural memory

Midbrain : Reticular activating system:

Important for attention, sleep, arousal.

Forebrain

(Thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, cerebrum, cerebral cortex)

Thalamus:

Sensory relay station for sense organs

\-Receives all information from sense except smell and passes it on

Limbic system:

Learning and memory, motivation and emotion,

\-Contains hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus,

Hypothalamus:

motivation, emotion, and behavior...very important (rat example)

the 4 fs of the hypothalamus

fighting, fleeing, feeding, fornication

Lateral hypothalamus - stimulate

eats nonstop/opposite if destroy

Ventromedial hypothalamus

stops eating/opposite if destroy

Way to remember thalamus

Lesion the Lateral hypothalamus Lose hunger

Amygdala

big role in rage and fear - but only one piece

Hippocampus

Converts short term to long term memory

Cerebrum:

large area containing cerebral cortex (what makes us human)

Cerebral Cortex

"Thinking" area, human consciousness.

Association areas

Shape info into something meaningful.

Occipital:

Back of the head...associated with vision

Temporal:

"Temples" sides of the head. Associated with memory, hearing, learning

Parietal:

Top of head. Involved in movement, touch, etc. Somatosensory strip.

Frontal:

personality, motor strip, thinking.

The Homunculus

The representation of how the body would look if it was based on the number of sense neurons devoted to body parts

Somatosensory/Motor cortices

Start at center of the brain it controls bottom of body - as you move down the cortex you move up the body

Endocrine system:

consists of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormone:

a chemical produced by the endocrine system that control specific body functions

Pituitary gland ( master gland)

\-Lies just under the hypothalamus

\-Secretes growth hormones (muscles, bones, and other glands)

Oxytocin for mothers

Thyroid gland

\
\-Produces thyroxin

too much = weight loss, hyperactivity, inability to sleep \n -Too little = overweight,

The Adrenal gland

\-Cortical steroids (resistance to stress, muscle mass, release stored sugars)

\-fight or flight

Pineal Gland

\-Releases melatonin for sleep

\-affected by sunlight on retina

Pancreas

\-insulin - too little - diabetes

\-too much- hypoglycemia

Testosterone

\-Male sex hormone though females have some as well

Before birth if released, causes male sex organs to grow (if it's not released, female sex organs will grow)

Estrogen and Progesterone

\
female sex hormones, but low levels found in some males

primary and secondary sex characteristics in females \n - Regulates menstrual cycle \n - Changes in estrogen level linked to PMS

Broca's area: Damage to this area

person struggles to form words while still being able to comprehend speech

Wernicke's area: Damage to this area

can't understand speech. Talks in a "word salad"

Left brain ( language)

also math, logic, problem solving

Right brain (creativity)

imagination, feelings, art, and spatial relations

Corpus callosum:

connects left and right hemispheres shares info between them

\-Information received by one side of the body is transmitted to the opposite side

"Split brain" patients:

People who (because of seizures) had their corpus callosum cut, resulting in two independent hemispheres.

How do People know this about the brain?

Accidents: brain damage from head injuries can be very specific. \n Researchers find the damage and see what effects it is having on the rest of the body. Certain areas \n are more vital than others. (Phineas T. Gage)

*The brain cannot repair itself.

Once a neuron dies, it is gone. However, the brain can reroute itself, and find new pathways to access information and restore some function. (Plasticity)

Electrical stimulation:

Specific areas of the brain are stimulated with an electrode and the results recorded. All sorts of sensation areas have been mapped out, as well as radical behavioral changes (mostly in animals).

Electroencephalogram (EEG):

records electrical activity of the brain. Can locate tumors and measure brain wave patterns.

MRI

works by putting someone in a strong magnetic field. This magnet aligns atoms in our brain, then a brief radio wave distorts the atoms, when the atoms return to their normal spin they release signals that provide detailed pictures of the brain.

fMRI

tracks oxygen levels in blood (laid over a typical MRI), Clearer than a PET scan. Shows both structure and function

PET scan

injected with radioactive glucose. Records where blood flow happens in brain. (This is the color one)

CAT scan/CT

X-ray of brain. Good for people with metal in the body. Less detail. Cheaper than MRI.

Nature:

Our biological groundwork, genetic, DNA, etc...

Nurture:

The effect that the environment has on us (family, education, culture, experiences, etc. ..)

Identical twins-100%

the same genes (1 egg splits in two)

Fraternal twins-

50% same genes (2 eggs fertilized at the same time)

Heredity:

transmission of traits from parent to offspring. The traits we inherit shape our behavior and also place limits on it. (Hair color, height, eye color, even things such as disorders)

Genes:

DNA segments that determine your traits and personality

Genotype

the actual genes (set at conception - can never change)

Phenotype

how the genes manifest into observable characteristics. (maybe affected by the environment)

XY chromosomes

male

XX chromosomes

female

Resting potential

All +Na on the outside, all -K on the inside

Action Potential

When +Na goes in, -K comes out

Refractory Period

When resetting

Central Nervous System (CNS)

consists of the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body