DE Psych Midterm 1

psychology

The scientific study of mental activity and behavior, which are based on brain processes

critical thinking

Systematically evaluating information to reach conclusions best supported by evidence

structuralism

An approach to psychology based on the idea that conscious experience can be broken down into its basic underlying components

functionalism

An early school of thought concerned with the adaptive purpose, or function, of mind and behavior

natural selection

The basis of evolution; the idea that those who inherit characteristics that help them adapt to their particular environments have a selective advantage over those who do not

psychoanalytic theory

The idea that our thoughts and actions are influenced by specific unconscious forces

gestalt theory

The idea that the whole of personal experience is different from simply the sum of its parts

behaviorism

A school of thought that emphasizes the role of environmental forces in producing behavior

humanistic psychology

a school of thought that investigates how people become happier an dmore fulfilled; focuses on the basic goodness of people

cognitive psychology

a school of thought that studies how people think, learn, and remember

culture

the beliefs, values, rules, and customs that exist within a group of people who share a common language and environment and that are transmitted through learning from one generation to the next

scientific method

a systematic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena (observable things) to answer questions about what happens, when it happens, what causes it, and why; involves a dynamic interaction between theories, hypotheses, and research methods

replication

repetition of research study to confirm or contradict the results

theory

a model of interconnected ideas or concepts that explains what is observed and makes predictions about future events

hypothesis

a prediction of what should be observed in a study if a theory is correct

descriptive methods

research methods that provide a systematic and objective description of what is occurring

correlation methods

research methods that examine how vairables are naturally related in the real world; the researcher makes no attempt to alter the variables or assign causation between them

experimental methods

research methods that test causal hypotheses by manipulating independent variables and measuring the effects on dependent variables

independent variables

in an experiment, the variable that the experimenter manipulates to examine its impact on the dependent variable

dependent variable

the variable that is measured to determine how it was affected by the manipulation of the independent variable

control group

in an experiment, a comparison group of participants that does not receive the experimental treatment

experimental group

in an experiment, one or more treatment groups of participants that receive the manipulation of the independent variable being investigated

random sample

a sample of participants that fairly represents the population because each member of the population had an equal chance of being included

random assignment

placing research participants into the conditions of an experiment in such a way that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable

institutional review boards (IRBs)

groups of people responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure that it meets the accepted standards of science and provides for the physical and emotional well-being of research participants

nervous system

a network of billions of cells in the brain and the body, responsible for all aspects of what we think, feel, and do

central nervous sywstem (CNS)

the part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and the spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the part of the nervous system that consists of all the nerve cells throughout the body except those in the brain and spinal cord

neurons

the basic units of the nervous system; cells that receive, integrate, and transmit information in the nervous system; operate through electrical impulses, communicate with others through chemical signals, and form neural networks

dendrites

branchlike extensions of the neuron’s cell body with receptors that receive information from other neurons

cell body

part of the neuron where information from thousands of other neurons is collected and integrated

axon

a long, narrow outgrowth of a neuron’s cell body that lets the neuron transmit information to other neurons

terminal buttons

parts of the neuron, at the end of axons, that release chemical signals from the neuron into the synapse

synapse

the space between neurons where communication takes place through neurotransmitters

neurotransmitters

chemical substances that carry signals from one neuron to another

action potential

the neural impulse that travels along the axon and then causes the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse

myelin sheath

a fatty material that covers and insulates some axons to allow for faster movement of electrical impulses along the axon

broca’s area

a small portion of the left frontal region of the brain; crucial for producing speech

medulla

a hindbrain structure at the top of the spinal cord; controls survival functions such as heart rate and breathing

pons

a hindbrain structure above the medulla; regulates sleep and arousal and coordinates movements of the left and right sides of the body

cerebellum

a hindbrain structure behind the medulla and pons; essential for coordinated movement and balance

thalamus

a subcortical forebrain strucure; the gateway to the brain for almost all incoming sensory information before that information reaches the cortex

hypthalamus

a subcortical forebrain structure involved in regulating bodily functions; influences basic motivated behaviors

hippocampus

a subcortical forebrain structure; associated with formation of new memories

amygdala

a subcortical forebrain structure; serves a vital role in our learning to associate things with emotional responses and in processing emotional information

occipital lobe

regions of the cerebral cortex in the back of the brain; important for vision

parietal lobes

regions of the crebral cortex in front of the occipital lobes and behind frontal lobes; important for sense of touch and for picturing the layout of spaces in an environment

temporal lobes

regions of the cerebral cortex below the parietal lobes and in front of the occipital lobes; important for hearing and recognizing objects, such as faces

frontal lobes

regions of the cerebral cortex at the front of the brain; important for movement and complex processes (rational thought, attention, social processes, etc)

somatic nervous system

a subdivision of the peripheral nervous system; transmits sensory signals and motor signals back and forth between the central nervous sytem an dthe skin, muscles, and joints

autonomic nervous sytem

a subdivision of the peripheral nervous system; transmits sensory and motor signals back and forth between the central nervous system and the body’s glands and organs

endocrine system

a communication system that uses hormones to influence mental activity and behavior

hormones

chemical substances, released from endocrine glands, that travel through the bloodstream to targeted tissues; tissues later influenced by the substances

genes

units of heredity, which partially determine an organism’s characteristics

monozygotic twins

identical twins; result from one zygote splitting in two, so they share the same genes

dizygotic twins

fraternal twins; result from two separately fertalized eggs, so they are no more similar genetically than nontwin siblings

plasticity

a property of the brain that causes it to change through experience, drugs, or injury

learning

a change in behavior, resulting from experience

habituation

a decrease in behavioral response after lengthy or repeated exposure to a stimulus

sensitization

an increase in behavioral response after lengthy or repeated exposure to a stimulus

classical conditioning

a type of learned response in which a neutral object comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces a response

unconditional stimulus (US)

a stimulus that elicits a response that is innate and does not require any prior learning

unconditioned response (UR)

a response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a stimulus that elicits a response, only after learning has taken place

conditioned response (CR)

a response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned

acquisition

the gradual formation of association between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli

extinction

a process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

a process in which a previously extinguished response reemeerges after the conditioned stimulus is presented again

stimulus generalization

learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response

stimulus discrimination

learning to differentiate between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus

operant conditioning

a learning process in which an action’s consequences determine how likely an action is to be performed in the future

operant

an action that is performed on an environment and has consequences

reinforcer

a consequence of an action that affects the likelihood of the action being repeated, or not, in the future

positive reinforcement

the addition of a stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated

negative reinforcement

the removal of a stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated again

positive punishment

the addition of a stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will recur

negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will recur

fixed interval schedule (FI)

reinforcing the occurence of a particular behavior after a predetermined amount of time since the last reinforcement

variable interval schedule (VI)

reinforcing the occurence of a particular behavior after an unpredictable and varying amount of time since the last reinforcement

fixed ratio schedule (FR)

reinforcing a particular behavior after that behavior has occured a predetermined number of times

variable ratio schedule (VR)

reinforcing a particular behavior after the behavior has occured an unpredictable and varying number of times

partial reinforcement extinction effect

the greater persistance of behavior under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement

cognitive map

a visuospatial mental representation of an environment

latent learning

learning that takes place in the absence of reinforcement

insight learning

a sudden understanding of how to solve a problem after a period of either inaction or thinking about the problem

observational learning

the acquisition or modification of a behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behavior

modeling

demonstrating a behavior to initiate a behavior that was previously observed

vicarious conditioning

learning the consequences of an action by watching others being reinforced or punished for performing the action

memory