Health Psychology

For health midterm, PSYC152-02

health psychology

the application of psychological principles and research to the enhancement of health and the prevention and treatment of illness

health disparities

preventable differences in the burden of disease, injury, violence, or opportunities to achieve optimal health that are experienced by socially disadvantaged populations

humoral theory

a concept of health proposed by hippocrates that considered wellness a state of perfect equilibrium among four basic body fluids, called _____. Sickness was believed to be the result of disturbances in the balance of ______.

epidemic

“among the people”; an epidemic disease is one that spreads rapidly among many individuals in a community at the same time

pandemic

a _______ disease is one that affects people over a large geographic area, such as multiple continents or worldwide

biomedical model

the dominant view of 20th century m edicine that maintains that illness always has a physical cause

pathogen

a virus, bacterium, or some other microorganism that causes a particular disease

psychosomatic medicine

a branch of psychiatry that developed in the 1900s and focused on the diagnosis and treatment of certain diseases believed to be caused by emotional conflicts

etiology

the scientific study of the causes or origins of specific diseases

biopsychosocial model

the viewpoint that health and other behaviors are determined by the interaction of biological mechanisms, psychological processes, and social influences

genomics

the study of the structure, function, and mapping of the genetic material of organisms

epigenetic

the effects of environmental forces on how genes are expressed

subjective well-being

the cognitive and emotional evaluations of a person’s life

birth cohort

a group of people who because they were born at about the same time, experience similar historical and social conditions

acute disorder

an illness or other medical problem that occurs over a short period of time

chronic illness

an illness that lasts a long time and is usually irreversible

socioeconomic status (SES)

a person’s position in society as determined by education, income, and occupation

immigrant paradox

the finding that, although low socioeconomic status usually predicts poor health, this is not true for some ethnic groups, such as hispanics, in the united states

ecological-systems approach

the viewpoint that nature is best understood as a hierarchy of systems, in which each system is simultaneously composed of smaller subsystems and larger, interrelated systems

positive health

the scientific study of health assets, which are factors that produce longer life, reduce illness, and increase overall well-being

health literacy

the ability to understand health information and use it to make good decisions about one’s health

massification

the transformation of a product or service that once was available to only the wealthy such that it becomes accessible to everyone. Applied to health and education, it is the idea that college can benefit everyone

evidence-based medicines

the use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients or the delivery of health services

critical thinking

a skeptical attitude that encourages health care providers and researchers to evaluate evidence and scrutinize conclusions

confirmation bias

a form of faulty reasoning in which our expectations prevent us from seeing alternative explanations for our observations

epidemiology

the scientific study of the frequency, distribution, and causes of a particular disease or other health outcome in a population

descriptive study

a research method in which researchers observe and record participants behaviors, often forming hypotheses that are later tested more systematically; includes case studies, interviews and surveys, focus groups, and observational studies

observational study

a non-experimental research method in which a researcher observes and records the behavior of a research participant

correlation coefficient

a statistical measure of the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, and thus of how well one predicts the other

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of data points, each of which represents the values of two variables in a descriptive study

statistical literacy

the ability to read and interpret statistics and to think critically about arguments that use statistics as evidence

quasi-experiment

a study comparing two groups that differ naturally on a specific variable of interest

cross-sectional study

a type of observational study in which data are collected from a population, or representative subset, at one specific point in time

longitudinal study

a study in which a single group of people is observed over a long span of time

morbidity

as a measure of health, the number of cases of a specific illness, injury, or disability in a given group of people at a given time

mortality

as a measure of health, the number of deaths due to a specific cause in a gi

incidence

the number of new cases of a

prevalence

the total number of diagnosed cases of a disease or condition that exist at a given time

etiology

the scientific study of the causes or origins of specific diseases

retrospective study

a longitudinal study that looks back at the history of a group of people, often one suffering a particular disease or condition

case-control study

a retrospective epidemiological study in which people with a disease or condition (c____) are compared with people who are not affected by the disease or condition (c____)

prospective study

a forward looking longitudinal study that begins with a healthy group of subjects and follows the development of a particular disease in that sample

randomized clinical trial (RCT)

a true experiment that tests the effects of one independent variable (such as a particular drug or treatment) on individuals or on groups of individuals (community field trials)

meta-analysis

a quantitative technique that combines the results of many studies examining the same effect of phenomenon

relative risk

a statistical indicator of the likelihood of a casual relationship between a particular health risk factor and a health outcome; computed as the ratio of the incidence (or prevalence) of a health condition in a group exposed to the risk factor to its incidence (or prevalence) in a group not exposed to the risk factor

attributable risk

the actual amount that a disease can be attributed to exposure to a particular risk factor

qualitative research

research that focuses on qualities instead of quantities. Participants expressed ideas are often part of qualitative studies

informed consent

permission granted by a client, patient, or research participant with full knowledge of the potential risks involved in a treatment, procedure, or research study

debrief

the process in which research participants are given more details about the study following its completion

cell

the basic unit of structure and function in living things

tissue

a group of similar cells organized into a functional unit

organ

a group of tissues working together to perform a specific function

nervous system

consists of all the neurons in the body; central _______ system includes the brain and spinal cord, the peripheral _______ system includes the body of other nerves

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers released by a neuron at synapses that communicate across the the synaptic gap and alter the electrical state of a receiving neuron

brainstem

the oldest and most central region of the brain; includes the medulla, pons, and reticular formation

medulla

the brainstem region that controls heartbeat and breathing

reticular formation

a network of neurons running through the brainstem involved with sleep, alertness, and arousal

thalamus

the brain’s sensory switchboard; located on top of the brainstem, this brain structure routes messages to the higher brain regions

cerebellum

located at the rear of the brain, this brain structure coordinates voluntary movement and balance

limbic system

a network of neurons surrounding the central core of the brain, associated with emotions such as fear and aggression; includes the hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus

amygdala

two cluster of neurons in the limbic system that are linked to emotion, especially agression

hippocampus

a structure in the brain’s limbic system linked to spatial orientation, learning, and memory

hypothalamus

lying just below the thalamus, the region of the brain that influences hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior; helps govern endocrine system via the pituitary gland

cerebral cortex

the thin layer of cells that cover the cerebrum. the seat of conscious sensation, skilled motor responses, language, and information processing

sensory cortex

lying at the front of the parietal lobes, the region of the cerebral cortex that processes body sensations like touch

motor cortex

lying at the rear of the frontal lobes, the region of the cerebral cortex that controls voluntary movement

association cortex

areas of the cerebral cortex that integrate multisensory information and higher mental functions such as thinking and speaking

endocrine systems

consists of glands that secrete hormones, chemical messengers that regulate bodily functions

hormones

chemical messengers, released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands, which have an effect on distant organs

pituitary gland

controlled by the hypothalamus, this gland releases a variety of hormones that act on other glands throughout the body

adrenal glands

lying above the kidneys, the pair of endocrine glands that secrete epinephrine, norphenylephrine, and cortisol, which are hormones that arouse the body in moments of stress

non communicable disease (NCD)

a chronic disease, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, or diabetes, that is not passed from person to person

stressor

any event or situation that triggers coping adjustments

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to events, called _________, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

social-evaluative threat

a stressor in which people fear negative evaluation by other of their appearance or ability

stereotype threat

the experience of stress in a situation where a person’s ability, appearance, or other characteristic has the potential to confirm a negative viewpoint about his or her social group

burnout

a job-related state of physical and psychological exhaustion

sympatho-adreno-medullary (SAM) axis

the body’s initial rapid-acting response to stress involving the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla under the direction of the sympathetic nervous system

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis

the body’s delayed response to stress, involving secretion of corticosteroid hormones from the adrenal cortex

homeostasis

the tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry such as the level of glucose in the blood, around a particular set point

corticosteroids

hormones produced by the adrenal cortex that fight inflammation, promotes healing, and trigger the release of stored energy

tend and befriend

the human tendency to respond to stress by seeking the company of other people and nurturing offspring

ecological momentary assessment (EMA)

a method of measuring stress that involves repeated sampling of people’s behavior and experiences in real time and in their natural environments

cardiovascular reactivity (CVR)

an individual’s characteristic reaction to stress including changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and hormones

reactivity hypothesis

the hypothesis that individuals who show large changes in blood pressure and vascular resistance to stress have increased risk of developing heart disease

respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA)

variability in heart rate in synchrony with breathing

psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)

the field of research that emphasizes the interaction of psychological, neural, and immunological processes in stress and illness

allostatic load (allostasis)

the cumulative long-term effects of the body physiological response to stress

glucocorticoid receptor (GCR) resistance model

the idea that chronic stress promotes the development and progression of disease by reducing the sensitivity of immune system receptors to glucocorticoid hormones such as cortisol, thereby interfering with the body’s ability to regulate the inflammatory response

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Seleye’s term for the body’s reaction to stress which consists of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

transactional model

Lazarus’s theory that the experience of stress depends as much on the individuals cognitive appraisal of a potential stressor;s impact as it does on the event or situation itself

primary appraisal

a person’s initial determination of an event’s meaning, whether irrelevant,benign-positive, or threatening

secondary appraisal

a person’s determination of whether his or her own resources and abilities are sufficient to meet the demands of an event that is appraised as potentially threatening or challenging

diathesis-stress model

the model that proposes that two interacting factors determine an individual’s susceptibility to stress and illness; predisposing factors in the person and precipitating factors from the environment

reactivity

our physiological reaction to stress, which varies by individual and affects our vulnerability to illness

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

a physiological disorder triggered by exposure to an extreme traumatic stressor, such as combat or natural disaster, symptoms including haunting memories, nightmares, extreme mental distress, and unwanted flashbacks

affective neuroscience

the scientific study of the neural mechanisms of emotion

microaggression

insults, indignities, and marginalizing messages sent by well-intentioned people who seem unaware of the hidden messages that they are sending

minority stress theory

the concept that proposes that health disparities among minority individuals are due to chronically high levels of stress experienced by a members of stigmatized groups

coping

the cognitive, behavioral, and emotional ways in which we manage stressful situations