PSYC 100 Week 1-4 Review

Empirical methods

Approaches to inquiry that are tied to actual measurement and observation.

Ethics

Guidelines that offer researchers a template for making decisions that protect research participants from potential harm and that steer scientists away from conflicts of interest or other compromising situations.

Hypotheses

Logical ideas that can be tested.

Systematic observation

The careful observation of the natural world with the aim of better understanding it.

Theories

Groups of closely related phenomena or observations.

Anecdotal evidence

A piece of evidence, usually drawn from personal experience, used to support a conclusion that may or may not be correct.

Causality

In research, the determination that one variable causes an effect.

Correlation

In statistics, the measure of relatedness of two or more variables.

Data

In research, information systematically collected for analysis and interpretation.

Deductive reasoning

A form of reasoning in which a given premise determines the interpretation of specific observations.

Distribution

In statistics, the relative frequency that a particular value occurs for each possible value of a given variable.

Empirical

Concerned with observation and/or the ability to verify a claim.

Fact

Objective information about the world.

Falsify

In science, the ability of a claim to be tested and – possibly – refuted, a defining feature of science.

Generalize

In research, the degree to which one can extend conclusions drawn from the findings of a study to other groups or situations not included in the study.

Hypothesis

A tentative explanation that is subject to testing.

Induction

To draw general conclusions from specific observations.

Inductive reasoning

A form of reasoning in which a general conclusion is inferred from a set of observations.

Levels of analysis

In science, there are complementary understandings and explanations of phenomena.

Null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST)

In statistics, a test created to determine the chances that an alternative hypothesis would produce a result as extreme as the one observed if the null hypothesis was true.

Objective

Being free of personal bias.

Population

In research, all the people belonging to a particular group.

Probability

A measure of the degree of certainty of the occurrence of an event.

Probability values

In statistics, the established threshold for determining whether a given value occurs by chance.

Pseudoscience

Beliefs or practices that are presented as being scientific, but which are not.

Representative

In research, the degree to which a sample is a typical example of the population from which it is drawn.

Sample

In research, people selected from a population to serve as an example of that population.

Scientific theory

An explanation for observed phenomena that is empirically well-supported, consistent, and fruitful (predictive).

Type I error

In statistics, the error of rejecting the null hypothesis when it’s true.

Type II error

In statistics, the error of failing to reject the null hypothesis when it’s false.

Behaviourism

The study of behavior.

Cognitive psychology

The study of mental processes.

Consciousness

Awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Empiricism

The belief that knowledge comes from experience.

Eugenics

The practice of selective breeding to promote desired traits.

Flashbulb memory

A highly detailed and vivid memory of an emotionally significant event.

Functionalism

A school of American psychology that focused on the utility of consciousness.

Gestalt psychology

An attempt to study the unity of experience.

Introspection

A method of focusing on internal processes.

Neural impulse

An electro-chemical signal that enables neurons to communicate.

Practitioner-Scholar Model

A model of training of professional psychologists that emphasizes clinical practice.

Psychophysics

Study of the relationships between physical stimuli and the perception of those stimuli.

Realism

A point of view that emphasizes the importance of the sense in providing knowledge of the external world.

Scientists-Practitioner Model

A model of training of professional psychologists that emphasizes the development of both research and clinical skills.

Structuralism

A school of American psychology that sought to describe the elements of conscious experience.

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

The inability to pull a word from memory even though there is the sensation that that word is available.

Loneliness

Due to separation from family/friends.

Financial stress

Expenses may lead to debt.

Class format

Large classes that are less impersonal and less structured (more distraction).

Freedom

More independence in university (so more responsibility).

Social opportunities

Pressure from the choices of engaging in certain recreational activities and how to balance work life with social life.

Personal and emotional problems

Key point in life for development.

Scheduling your time

A strategy for success in post-secondary education.

Keeping focused and studying effectively

A strategy for success in post-secondary education.

Be prepared for potentially upsetting content by looking through the syllabus

A strategy for success in post-secondary education.

Considering coping strategies and mental hygiene

A strategy for success in post-secondary education.

Self-care

A strategy for success in post-secondary education.

Techniques such as deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, visualization (“happy place”), grounding (detach from overwhelming emotion through distraction)

A strategy for success in post-secondary education.

Science

The use of systematic observation to acquire knowledge.

Francis Galton

Studied ability to distinguish between colors and invented self-report questionnaire.

Psychological science

Helps with therapy studies and improves the world.

Informed consent

People have free choice to participate.

Confidentiality

Information should not be made public without permission.

Privacy

Observations should not be made in private places without permission.

Benefits

Researchers should weigh the benefits against the potential risks.

Deception

Researchers must debrief after the study to educate participants.

Scientific vs Everyday Reasoning

Induction is used in both scientific and everyday reasoning.

Interpretation of Research Results

Inductive reasoning is based on probabilities and science is better at addressing probabilities rather than proving something.

Correlation

in statistics, the measure of relatedness of two or more variables

Null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST)

tests the probability that the observations would be the same if there were no relationship between the variables in the study

Type I error

data shows a relationship that doesn't exist

Type II error

data fails to show a relationship that exists

Scientific theory

an explanation for an observed phenomena that is empirically well-supported, consistent and fruitful/predictive as well as potentially falsified

Levels of analysis

a given phenomenon can be explained at different levels simultaneously - allow a variety of perspectives

Empiricism

claims that all knowledge comes from experience

Psychophysics

allows for the measuring of the relationship between physical stimuli and human perception

Structuralism

sought to describe elements of conscious experience (about the contents of the mind)

Functionalism

focused on utility of consciousness (about the activities of the mind)

Gestalt psychology

studies the unity of experience

Behaviourism

the study of behaviour

Cognitive psychology

includes flashbulb memory and the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Applied psychology

the application of psychological principles and theories to real-world problems

Scientist-practitioner model

training model of professional psychologists that emphasizes the development of both research and clinical skills

practitioner scholar model

training model of professional psychologists that emphasizes clinical practice

Cause-and-effect

related to whether we say one variable is causing changes in the other variable, vs. other variables that may be related to these two variables

Confidence interval

an interval of plausible values for a population parameter; the interval of values within the margin of error of a statistic

Distribution

the pattern of variation in the data

Generalizability

related to whether the results from the sample can be generalized to a larger population

Margin of error

the expected amount of random variation in a statistic; often defined for 95% confidence level

Parameter

a numerical result summarizing a population (e.g., mean, proportion)

Population

a larger collection of individuals that we would like to generalize our results to

P-value

set a threshold for errors and what data is significant

Random assignment

using a probability-based method to divide a sample into treatment groups

Random sampling

using a probability-based method to select a subset of individuals for the sample from the population

Reliability

the consistency of a measure

Sample

the collection of individuals on which we collect data

Statistical significance

a result is statistically significant if it is unlikely to arise by chance alone

Validity

the degree to which a measure is assessing what it is intended to measure

Confound

factors that undermine the ability to draw causal inferences from an experiment

Correlation

measures the association between two variables, or how they go together