Research Methods Exam 2

What is sampling

Selecting a relatively small number of elements from a larger defined group of elements.

Why do we collect a sample?

Impossible/Unreasonable to conduct a census. Less time consuming and less costly. Influence the type of research design, the survey instrument, and the actual questionnaire.

Population,

an identifiable group of elements (people, products, organizations)

sampling unit vs

target population elements actually available to be used during the sampling process

sampling frame

The list of all eligible sampling units

Sampling errors

a statistical error. It is any bias that results from mistakes in either 1.) the selection process for prospective sampling units. 2.) Determining the sample size.

Nonsampling errors

is an error that occurs during data collection, causing the data to differ from the true values. ( data entry eros, biased survey questions, biased processing/decision making. Hard to detect or define)

Probability Sampling

knowing the probability of being selected for the sample

vs. nonprobability sampling

not knowing the probability of selecting each sampling unit (don't know the sampling error) based on the judgment of the researcher and may or may not be representative of the target population.

Simple sampling

A probability sampling procedure in which evefy sampling unit has a known and equal chance of being selected

Systematic sampling

defined target population is ordered in some way, usually in the form of a customer list, taxpayer roll, or membership roster, and selected systematically

stratified random sampling

separation of the target population into different groups, called strata, and the selection of samples from each stratum (1. Divide the target population into homogeneous subgroups or strata. Draw random samples from each stratum. Combine the samples into a single sample of the target population.

Convenience sampling

draws samples at the convenience of the researcher. Commonly used in the early stages of research and pretesting of questionnaires.

Snowball sampling

(referral sampling) a set of respondents is chosen, and they help the researcher identify additional respondents. Typically used when: the defined target population is small and unique or compiling a complete list of sampling units is very difficult.

Determining the appropriate sampling design- what to consider

Research Objectives (calls for qualitative or quantitative designs) Degree of accuracy (are inferences or just insights needed) Resources (Is there a tight budget?) Time Frame (How quickly does the research need to be completed?) How much knowledge the researcher has about the target population (are there complete lists?) Scope of the Research (International, national?) Statistical analysis needs (is statistical projection or hypothesis testing required?)

What is a measurement

The process of developing methods to systematically characterize or quantify information about persons, events, ideas, or objects of interest.

Abstract vs. concrete properties of a construct

an abstract idea or concept formed in a person's mind. A combination of a number of similar characteristics of the construct.

Construct Development

is the process in which researchers identify characteristics that define the concept of being studied by the researcher

Construct

is an unobservable concept measured indirectly by a group of related variables

Consumer concrete properties

age, marital status, sex

Consumer Abstract Properties

attitudes towards a product, brand loyalty

Organization concrete properties

name of company, number of employees

Organization Abstract Properties

Competence of employees, quality control, channel power

Different types of scale measurement:

is assigning a set of scale descriptors to represent the range of possible responses to a question about a particular object or construct

Nominal

requires respondents to provide only some type of descriptor as the raw response

Ordinal

allows a respondent to express relative magnitude between the answers to a question

interval

demonstrates absolute differences between each scale point

Ratio

allows the researcher not only to identify the absolute differences between each scale point but also to make comparisons between the responses. This enables a "true natural zero" or "true state of nothing" response.

Reliability

results are consistent

Validity

results satisfy objectives

Scale reliability

is the extent to which a scale can reproduce the same or similar measurement results in repeated trials- measures consistency

Scale validity

assesses whether a scale measures what it is supposed to measure

Likert

An ordinal scale format asking respondents to indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with a series of mental or behavioral belief statements about a given subject.

Semantic

A semantic differential scale. a unique bipolar ordinal scale format that captures a person's attitudes or feelings on a give object.

bipolar scale

the inappropriate narrative expressions of the scale descriptors

Criteria for scale development:

a forced- choice scale does not have a neutral descriptor. A scale including a neutral response is a non forced or free-choice scale. Minimize negatively worded statements, and still use caution.

Balanced

has an equal number of positive and negative response alternatives

unbalanced scales

has more options on one side

Forced-choice

does not have a neutral descriptor

Comparative

respondents express their attitudes, feelings, or behaviors about an object on the basis of some other object.

non-comparative scales

Used when the objective is to have a respondent express their attitudes, behavior, or intentions about a specific object without making references to another object.

Measurement scale issues

when phrasing the question element of the scale, use clear wording. Make sure scale point descriptors are relevant and adequate.

double -barreled

includes two or more attributes in the same question. But responses allow comment on a single issue.

Leading

influences the respondent's answers

double negative

contains two negative thoughts in the same question

Loaded

suggests a socially desirable answer or involves an emotionally charged issue

Ambiguous

involve possible responses that can be interpreted a number of ways

Complex

are worded in a way making the respondent unsure how to respond

Designing measurement scales requires (steps: questions to ask)

understanding the research problem. Identifying and developing constructs. Establishing detailed data requirements. Understanding the scaling properties. Selecting the appropriate measurement scale.

Data reduction steps:

researchers make decisions about how to categorize and represent the data. The most systematic method is to read transcripts and develop categories to represent the data.

categorize (coding, codesheet)

a code sheet has all the codes on it. Unstructured data requires some type of coding prior to analysis.

Comparison

developing and refining theory and constructs by analyzing the differences and similarities in passages, themes, or types of participants.

Iteration

working through the data several times in order to modify early ideas

Memoing

or writing down thoughts after interviews, focus groups, or site visits

Negative Case Analysis

during the iterative process, researchers use negative case analysis: look for cases that contradict the developing theories. Establish boundaries and conditions for the theory. Researchers should be skeptical toward ideas and theories.

Data Display

reduce and summarize data and convey major ideas

Credibility:

the terms validity and reliability have to be redefined in a qualitative research

emic validity

affirms that key members of a culture/subculture agree with findings

cross-researcher reliability

is degree of similarity in coding by different researchers.

Triangulation

requires research to be addressed from multiple perspectives. (multiple methods, Multiple data sets, multiple researchers, etc.)

Data Validation

to determine if surveys, interviews, and observations were conducted correctly and free of errors

Data editing

checking the data for mistakes by the interviewer, the respondent, or in the process of transferring information from scanner databases or other sources to the company data warehouse.

Data entry

procedures used to enter the data into a computer file for subsequent data analysis

Error detection

identifies errors from data entry or other sources

Tabulation

counting the number of responses in categories

Cross-tabulation

categorize responses to two or more questions

Missing Data

a situation in which respondents do not provide an answer to a question. Minimize these errors when you create survey design online

Mean

the most commonly used measure of central tendency, describes the arithmetic average of the values in a sample of data

Median

the middle value of an ordered set of values

Mode

the most frequently occurring value in a distribution of values

Range

The spread of the data. The distance between the smallest and largest values of the distribution

Step 1

Confirm research objectives and information requirements

Step 2

Select appropriate data collection method

Step 3

Develop questions and scaling. Unstructured:ope ended questions formatted to allow respondents to rely in their own words. Structured: closed-ended questions that require the respondent to choose from a predetermined set of responses or scale points

Step 4

Determine layout and evaluate questionnaire. Give an overview of the research. Arranging question. Include demographic questions. Ending with a thank-you statement.

Step 5

obtain initial client approval. Copies of the questionnaire should be given to all parties involved in the project

Step 6

Pretest, revise, and finalize the questionnaire. A pretest is a descriptive research activity representing a small scale investigation. A pilot study is a small-scale version of the intended main research study.

Step 7

Implement the survey. Collect the data using the agreed-upon questionnaire.

Sampling refers to

the target population elements available for selection during a sampling process.

____ sampling is a probability sampling procedure in which every sampling has a known and equal chance of being selected

simple random

which method of sampling relies on the assumption that rare groups of people tend to form their own unique social circles?

snowball sampling

non sampling errors reduce the overall quality of the data regardless of the data collection method.

true

In the context of the systematic sampling method, hidden patterns represent populations that researchers may be interested in studying, but often are hard to reach.

True

Which of the following types of scales asks the respondent to state his or heragreement or disagreement with a series of statements about a specific brand interms of a 5-point scale ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree"?

a likert scale

In a well-designed semantic differential scale, the individual scales should be trulybipolar.

True

A professor wants to determine the male-female ratio in his college. He designs aquestionnaire in which the respondent only needs to choose between two choices,male and female. The scale used by the professor is an example of the ________scale.

nominal

A researcher working at Arcade Inc. is interested in finding out people's perception ofArcade's prices and quality relative to those of its top market rival. Given thisobjective, which of the following would prove to be most efficient?

a comparative rating scale

Scale validity assesses whether a scale measures what it is supposed to measure.Thus, validity is a measure of accuracy in measurement.

True

Which of the following statements is true about graphic rating scales?

They introduce bias and often influence the way a respondent answers a question.

Which of the following is most likely an example of a double-barreled question?

How satisfied or dissatisfied are you with your current Internet service provider?

Which of the following statements is true of leading questions?

They introduce bias and often influence the way a respondent answers a question.

Which of the following statements is true of scale responses?

They should be mutually exclusive.

Which of the following statements is true of double negative questions?

They create cognitive confusion and respondents find it difficult to understand the questionand therefore respond correctly.

An Institutional Review Board (IRB) is responsible for reviewing and approving, priorto initiation, all research projects that involve the use of human participants as thesource of data.

True

Questionnaires should be designed to eliminate or at least minimize response orderbias.

True

Which of the following is the first step in the data reduction process?

Categorization

In the context of qualitative data analysis, a document that lists the different themes or categories for a particular study is called

code sheet

In the context of data reduction, the __ process primarily involves working through the data several times in order to modify early ideas.

iteration

The process of developing and refining theory and constructs by analyzing the differences and similarities in passages, themes, or types of participants is called

comparison

Triangulation requires that research inquiry be addressed from multiple perspectives

True