this can “bump” macula out of place so light doesn’t hit the right photoreceptors causing macular degeneration
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myosin and actin filaments
allow cross bridge cycling, contraction/relaxing of platlets
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smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
autonomic nervous system effectors
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ganglion
synaptic relay between neurons of the autonomic nervous system
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unmylinated
unique characteristic of post ganglionic axons
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adrenal medulla
secretes hormones epinephrine and noradrenaline
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epinephrine
short term stress hormone released into blood by adrenal medulla creating a full body sympathetic response
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high pitch/frequency sounds
disturb shorter stuffer basilar membrane fibers at the “base”
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cones
photoreceptors most affected by macular degeneration
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frequency
specific detection determines where on the basilar membrane hairs are ordered
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place coding
mechanical frequency filtering that takes place at basilar membrane
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basilar membrane
acts as a spectral analyzer that translates vibration frequencies within the cochlear fluid pressure waves into positions of maximal displacement along its length
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low frequency/low pitch
localize near lowest, widest, least stiff part of basilar membrane
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cornea
clear window in which light enters eye, has many nerve endings when triggered causes blinking and increased tear production
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sclera
firm white outer fibrous layer of eyeball, protects and maintains eyeball shape
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pupil
opening in center of the iris through which light enters eye
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retina
two layered, on back of eye which when hit by light triggers an action potential
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photoreceptors
specialized neuron cells in retina responsible for converting light to an action potential, which activates signaling to brain
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rods
photoreceptor with a 3:1 neuron ratio, receives black/white images, cylindrically shaped, more numerous in number
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cones
photoreceptor with a 1:1 neuron ratio, receives color
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inhibitory action potentials
default state is in the dark, rods always firing ___
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light
causes protein conformation change closing Na+ channels of rod photoreceptor
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reduction in release of inhibitory neurotransmitter
affect of hyper polarization of rod cell
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blind spot
space where optic nerve leaves eyeball and no photoreceptors are present
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center of the retina
where are cones most dense?
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lens
transmits and focuses light on retina, transparent structure made of layered epithelial cells, unable to repair itself/replicate
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fovea
a small depression in the retina where visual detail is most focused/sharp, pit inside macula with only cones
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cataracts
with age buildup of protein aggregates cause lens to become cloudy, and light cannot be focused to photoreceptors and is instead scattered
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macula
center portion of retina with a dense region of photoreceptors
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macular degeneraton
caused when macula “bumped” out of place and light doesn’t hit the right dense region of photoreceptors causing blurry central vision
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cones
missing one of these is the cause of color blindness
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optic nerve
bundle of nerves that carry signals from retinal photoreceptors to the brain
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ciliary muscles
adjust shape of the lens to accommodate objects objects of varying distances away
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light wavelengths
three different cones distinguished by how they respond differently to ___
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optic disc
site which photoreceptors are distributed all along the retina
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bipolar cells
when inhibition removed, stimulate ganglion cells which send action potentials along their axon
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hyper polarization
chemical change that results from light hitting photoreceptor
small air filled cavity within temporal bone with a tube that links to throat, an ear infection is causes when this is filled with fluid
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inner ear
fluid filed, composed of three bone subdivisions that when vibrated amplify sound
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cochlea
the spiral cavity of the inner ear which produces nerve impulses in response to sound vibrations.
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semicircular canals
tiny, fluid-filled tubes in the inner ear that help you keep your balance
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ossicles
three bony structures that allow for the transmission of sound waves through amplification
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conduction deafness
when the natural movement of sound through the external ear or middle ear is blocked, and the full sound does not reach the inner ear cells that create the action potential
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neural deafness
problem in the inner ear due to hair cells not being able to properly send action potentials to brain
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tympanic membrane
also known as the eardrum, separates outer from inner ear, transmits vibrations to ossicles
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cochlear nerve
transmits the electrical impulses generated for hearing and localization of sound
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loud sounds
can cause both neural and conduction deafness
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hair cells
specialized cells responsible for the transduction of sound-evoked mechanical vibrations into electrical signals that are then relayed to the brain
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conduction deafness
type of deafness hearing aids help overcome
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mechanically gated ion channel
channel that responds to hair cell vibration
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depolarization
as sound waves pull hair cells over ____ triggers an action potential
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parasympathetic inhibitory response
constricts pupil, constricts bronchi, slows heart
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parasympathetic stimulatory response
stimulates salivation, urination, pancreas and intestines
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sympathetic inhibitory response
inhibits salivation, urination, stomach and intestines
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Flashcard (37)