DHS AP Psych - Famous People - ULTIMATE LIST

History and Approaches - People

Wilhelm Wundt, William James, Mary Whiton Calkins, Margaret Floy Washburn, G. Stanley Hall, Max Wertheimer, Sigmund Freud, John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Charles Rogers, Jean Piaget

Wilhelm Wundt

- german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879, "Father" of Psychology, Considered the Father of modern psychology; study of mental processes, introspection, and self-exam; established the first psychology laboratory in Germany

William James

- 1842-1910 American philosopher and psychologist who founded psychology in the United states and established the psychological school called functionalism
- 1st American Psychologist
- Viewed the mind as a stream which cannot be meaningfully broken down into distinct component

Mary Whiton Calkins

- American psychologist who conducted research on memory, personality, and dreams; first woman president of the American Psychological Association

Margaret Floy Washburn

- American psychologist who studied animal behavior; first woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology

G. Stanley Hall

- 1844-1924 American psychologist who established the first psychology research laboratory in the United States; founded and first president of the American Psychological Association.

Max Wertheimer

- A Gestalt psychologist who argued against dividing human thought and behavior into discrete structures
- Discovered apparent motion / Phi phenomena
- One of three founders of Gestalt Psychology; the whole is greater than the sum of its parts

Sigmund Freud

- 1856-1939; Field: psychoanalytic, personality; Contributions: id/ego/superego, reality and pleasure principles, ego ideal, defense mechanisms (expanded by Anna Freud), psychoanalysis, transference,
- Austrian neurologist who originated psychoanalysis (1856-1939); Said that human behavior is irrational; behavior is the outcome of conflict between the id (irrational unconscious driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires) and ego (rationalizing conscious, what one can do) and superego (ingrained moral values, what one should do).

John B. Watson

- (1878-1958) He was an American psychologist who departed from Wundt and the early psychologists by emphasizing the scientific study of observable behaviors rather than the study of subjective mental processes. He is now remembered as one of the founders of behaviorism.

Ivan Pavlov

- 1891-1951; Field: Gastroenterology; Contributions: developed foundation for classical conditioning, discovered that a UCS naturally elicits a reflexive behavior; Studies: dog salivation

B.F. Skinner

- 1904-1990; Field: behavioral; Contributions: created techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behavior in order to observe the effects of subsequent behavior; Studies: Skinner box

Abraham Maslow

- 1908-1970; Field: humanism; Contributions: hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied, self-actualization, transcendence
- (American, 1908-1970) Introduced theory of the "hierarchy of needs" (food, shelter, love, esteem, etc.) and its pinnacle, the need for "self-actualization." Self-actualized people are those who understand their individual needs and abilities and who have families, friends, and colleagues that support them and allow them to accomplish things on which they place value. The lowest unmet need on the hierarchy tends to dominate conscious thought.

Carl Rogers

- 1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person
- Developed "client-centered" therapy

Charles Darwin

- Evolution by "natural selection" (the weaker die out) wrote On the Origin of Species

Jean Piaget

- 1896-1980; Field: cognition; Contributions: created a 4-stage theory of cognitive development, said that two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth (assimilation and accommodation)
- assimilation -
- accommodation -

Biological Bases of Behavior - People

- Roger Sperry, Michael Gazzaniga, Paul Broca, Carl Wernicke, Thomas Bouchard

Roger Sperry

- American psychologist who received the Nobel Prize in 1981 for his pioneering research on brain specialization in split-brain patients
- Finds that when the brain was divided each hemisphere continued to have individual and private experiences, sensations, thoughts, and emotions

Michael Gazzaniga

- 1939-present; Field: cognition (neuroscience); Studied of the neural basis of mind with primary responsibility for initiating human split-brain research. In his subsequent work he has made important advances in our understanding of functional lateralization in the brain and how the cerebral hemispheres communicate with one another

Paul Broca

- Broca's area, language production in the left frontal lobe
- (1824- 1880) Found that injury to a particular part of the left frontal lobe (now known as Broca's area) resulted in a kind of asphasia in which the person is unable to produce many words or to speak very fluently (p. 43)

Carle Wernicke

-, Expanded upon Broca's findings by discovering that damage to the left, posterior, superior temporal gyrus also caused language deficits (now known as Wernicke's area)
- Discovered that patients who had damage to this region produced speech that was fluent but meaningless and had disrupted language comprehension.

Thomas Bouchard

-, conducted study on identical twins that found a correlation of 0.69 on IQ, criticized because their similar appearances may have led to their being treated similarly,
- Minnesota twin study 1979 (biology) twins that were reared apart had similarities so this must be attributed to their genes

Sensation and Perception - People

- David Hubel, Torsten Wiesel, Ernst Weber, Gustav Fechner, Eleanor Gibson

David Hubel

- along with Torsten Wiesel discovered feature detectors, groups of neurons in the visual cortex that respond to different types of visual stimuli (sensation and perception)

Torsten Wiesel

- Along with David Hubel discovered feature detector groups of neurons in the visual cortex that respond to different types of visual images

Ernst Weber

-1795-1878; Field: perception; Studies: 1st study on JND, He pioneered the first study in JND (just noticeable difference). It became Weber's law; the JND between stimuli is a constant fraction of the intensity of the standard stimulus. E.g. the bigger or more intense the standard stimulus, the larger the increment needed to get a noticeable difference. (Holding books stacked on your hand).

Gustav Fechner

-, 1801-1887; Field: perception; Contributions: stated that the magnitude of a sensory experience is proportionate to the \# of JND's that the stimulus causing the experiences above the absolute threshold, Founded psychophysics, Demonstrated that mental processes can be measured,
- Absolute threshold. Smallest intensity of a stimulus that has to be present for the stimulus to be detected. For example, you waiting for a burner to heat up by placing your hand on the burner. Then you remove your hand when it is just hot enough for you to detect the heat.

Eleanor Gibson

-,1910-2002; Field: perception; Gibson was an American psychologist. Among her contributions to psychology, the most important are the study of perception in infants and toddlers. She is popularly known for the Visual Cliff; experiment in which precocial animals, and crawling human infants, showed their ability to perceive depth by avoiding the deep side of a virtual cliff. Along with her husband J. J. Gibson, she forwarded the concept that perceptual learning takes place by differentiation.

States of Consciousness - People

- William James, Sigmund Freud, Ernest Hilgard

William James

- 1842-1910 American philosopher and psychologist who founded psychology in the United states and established the psychological school called functionalism
- 1st American Psychologist
- Viewed the mind as a stream which cannot be meaningfully broken down into distinct component

Sigmund Freud

- 1856-1939; Field: psychoanalytic, personality; Contributions: id/ego/superego, reality and pleasure principles, ego ideal, defense mechanisms (expanded by Anna Freud), psychoanalysis, transference,
- Austrian neurologist who originated psychoanalysis (1856-1939); Said that human behavior is irrational; behavior is the outcome of conflict between the id (irrational unconscious driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires) and ego (rationalizing conscious, what one can do) and superego (ingrained moral values, what one should do).

Ernest Hilgard

- Studies showing that a hypnotic trance includes a "hidden observer" suggesting that there is some subconscious control during hypnosis

Learning - People

- Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, Rosalie Rayner, John Garcia, Robert Koelling, Edward Thorndike, B.F. Skinner, Robert Rescorla, Albert Bandura, Edward Tolman, Wolfgang Kohler

Ivan Pavlov

- 1891-1951; Field: Gastroenterology; Contributions: developed foundation for classical conditioning, discovered that a UCS naturally elicits a reflexive behavior; Studies: dog salivation

John Watson

-, behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

Rosalie Rayner

- graduate student of Watson and co-researcher for the famous Little Albert demonstration of classically conditioned emotion

John Garcia

- Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

Robert Koelling

- Ran experiments with John Garcia on Taste Aversion in species using rates, loud sounds, and bad tasting water.

Edward Thorndike

-, 1874-1949; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: Law of Effect-relationship between behavior and consequence; Studies: Law of Effect with cats, Pioneer in operant conditioning who discovered concepts in intstrumental learning such as the law of effect.
- Known for his work with cats in puzzle boxes.
- Author of the law of effect, the principle that forms the basis of operant conditioning

B.F. Skinner

- 1904-1990; Field: behavioral; Contributions: created techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behavior in order to observe the effects of subsequent behavior; Studies: Skinner box

Robert Rescorla

- American psychologist who experimentally demonstrated the involvement of cognitive processes in classical conditioning, Researched classical conditioning; found subjects learn the predictability of an event through trials (cognitive element)
- showed that an important feature of a conditioned stimulus is the extent to which it predicts the likelihood of the unconditioned stimulus' appearance, as, for example, in taste aversion
- Contingency model: Learning exist that are not explained by operant or classical conditioning

Albert Bandura

- 1925-present; Field: sociocultural; Contributions: pioneer in observational learning, stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others;
- Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play,
- Famous for the Bobo Doll experiments on observational learning & influence in the Socio-Cognitive Perspective
- "Modeling": Attention, Retention, Reproduction, & Motivation

Edward Tolman

- Cognitive psychologist; Latent Learning & cognitive maps in rats, American psychologist who used the terms cognitive map and latent learning too describe experimental findings that strongly suggested that cognitive factors play a role in animal learning.

Wolfgang Kohler

- A Gestalt psychologist who became known for his experiments with chimpanzees and insight in problem solving. He believed that by perceiving the whole situation, chimps were able to create novel solutions to problems (rather than just by trial and error). Through insight, chimps were able to use props in order to retrieve rewards.

Cognition - People

- George Sperling, George Miller, Alexandra Luria, Hermann Ebbinghaus, Noam Chomsky, Benjamin Whorf, Wolfgang Kohler

George Sperling

- demonstrated sensory memory by flashing a grid of 9 letters for 1/20th of a secon
- tested recall time by flashing rows of numbers and saw if participants could immediately recall the numbers

George Miller

- Former president of the American Psychological Association, proposed that we can only hold 7(+/-) 2 items in Short Term Memory @ any one time.

Alexandra Luria

- studied a patient with eidetic memory who could repeat a list of 70 letters or digits and remember it up to 15 years later

Hermann Ebbinghaus

-, 1850-1909; Field: memory; Contributions: 1st to conduct studies on forgetting: first, a rapid loss followed by a gradual declining rate of loss; Studies: memory-series of meaningless syllables/words
- the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well

Noam Chomsky

- 1928-present; Field: language; Contributions: disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite \# of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language

Benjamin Whorf

- Concept of "liguistic determinism" or how language impacts thought
- 1897-1941; Field: language; Contributions: his hypothesis is that language determines the way we think

Wolfgang Kohler

- A Gestalt psychologist who became known for his experiments with chimpanzees and insight in problem solving. He believed that by perceiving the whole situation, chimps were able to create novel solutions to problems (rather than just by trial and error). Through insight, chimps were able to use props in order to retrieve rewards.

Motivation and Emotion - People

- Charles Darwin, Abraham Maslow, William Masters, Virginia Johnson, Alfred Kinsey, William James, Carl Lange, Walter Cannon, Philip Bard, Stanley Schachter, Thomas Holmes, Richard Rahe, Hans Seyle

Charles Darwin

- Evolution by "natural selection" (the weaker die out) wrote On the Origin of Species

Abraham Maslow

- 1908-1970; Field: humanism; Contributions: hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied, self-actualization, transcendence
- (American, 1908-1970) principally known for two works, Motivation and Personality and Toward a Psychology of Being, that introduced his theory of the "hierarchy of needs" (food, shelter, love, esteem, etc.) and its pinnacle, the need for "self-actualization." Self-actualized people are those who understand their individual needs and abilities and who have families, friends, and colleagues that support them and allow them to accomplish things on which they place value. The lowest unmet need on the hierarchy tends to dominate conscious thought.

William Masters

- used direct observation and experimentation to study sexual response cycle (4 stages)
- A physician and a psychologist who joined forces to treat sexual difficulties (premature ejaculation, inability to orgasm, etc.). They wrote "Human Sexual Response," in which they wrote the then groundbreaking concepts that male and female sexual responses are physiologically very similar and that women achieve orgasm primarily through clitoral stimulation. They later (1970) published "Human Sexual Inadequacy," revolutionized sex therapy by treating sexual problems not as products of neuroses or personality disorders, but simply as difficulties that could be treated with behavioral therapy

Virginia Johnson

- psychologist famous for her pioneering research into the nature of human sexual response and the diagnosis and treatment of sexual disorders and dysfunctions from 1957 until the 1990s
- Pioneered the study of human sexuality under labarotary conditions with william masters, published human sexual response, pivotal role in the field of sex therapy
- Wife of William Masters, published research in books "Human Sexual Response" and "Human Sexual Inadequacy"

Alfred Kinsey

- Controversial Indiana University "sexologist" who documented Americans' changing sexual behavior
- 1948; published article "sexual behavior in the human male" highlighting the fact that homosexuality is more common than believed

William James

- 1842-1910 American philosopher and psychologist who founded psychology in the United states and established the psychological school called functionalism
- 1st American Psychologist
- Viewed the mind as a stream which cannot be meaningfully broken down into distinct component

Carl Lange

- Danish physiologist who proposed a theory of emotion similar to, and about the same time as James' theory that awareness of physiological responses leads to experiences of emotion.

Walter Cannon

- 1871-1945; Field: motivation; Contributions: believed that gastric activity as in empty stomach, was the sole basis for hunger; Studies: inserted balloons in stomachs
- Coined the term homeostasis, American pyschologist who developed an influential theory of emotion called the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
- Came up with the flight-or-fight response; the instinctive physiological response preparing the body, when confronted with a threat to either fight or flee; an evolutionary survival dynamic

Philip Bard

-, A very prominent American psychologist who developed an alternative arousal theory with Cannon bard, known as the Cannon-Bard theory . Was also the chairman of the APA during WW2.
- Cannon-Bard theory; experience of an event triggers both emotional and physiological response

Stanley Schachter

-, 1922-present; Field: emotion; Contributions: stated that in order to experience emotions a person must be physically aroused and know the emotion before you experience it,
- two factor emotion theory - physiological happens first, cognitive appraisal must be made in order to experience emotion.

Thomas Holmes

- along with Richard Rahe, designed one of the first instruments to measure stress
- social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) measured stress using life-change units (LCUs)

Richard Rahe

- found that the daily hassles a person experiences are more harmful to his or her health than are the significant life changes that occurred
- a high score on the life-change event scale is associated with a greater likelihood of a negative health change

Hans Seyle

- studied stress—the body responds in the same way to any stress
- General Adaptation Syndrome—a series of bodily reactions to prolonged stress (alarm, resistance, exhaustion).

Developmental Psychology - People

- Konrad Lorenz, Harry Harlow, Mary Ainsworth, Diana Baumrind, Lev Vygotsky, Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, Alfred Binet, Lawrence Kohlberg, Carol Gilligan

Konrad Lorenz

- Austrian zoologist who studied the behavior of birds and emphasized the importance of innate as opposed to learned behaviors (1903-1989)

Harry Harlow

- 1905-1981; Field: development; Contributions: realized that touch is preferred in development; Studies: Rhesus monkeys, studied attachment of infant monkeys (wire mothers v. cloth mothers)

Mary Ainsworth

- A Psychologist interested mainly in developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment. Discovered 3 Types of attachment 1.Secure Attachments(66%), 2.. Avoidant Attachments(21%) 3.Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment (12)

Diana Baumrind

- Authoritative - high in control and warmth; mature demands of and responsiveness to children; allows lots of discussion and considers children's opinions before making final decision; have set rules and guidelines; use rationale and logic when disciplining. Considered the most optimal parenting style
- Identified three different types of parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive.

Lev Vygotsky

-, 1896-1934; Field: child development; Contributions: investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development, zone of proximal development; play research
- *Theorist* is credited with the social development theory of learning. He/She suggested that social interaction influences cognitive development. His/Her learning theory suggests that students learn best in a social context in which a more able adult or peer teaches the student something he or she could not learn on his or her own. In other words, teachers must determine what a student can do independently and then provide the student with the opportunities to learn with the support of an adult or a more capable peer.

Sigmund Freud

- 1856-1939; Field: psychoanalytic, personality; Contributions: id/ego/superego, reality and pleasure principles, ego ideal, defense mechanisms (expanded by Anna Freud), psychoanalysis, transference,
- Austrian neurologist who originated psychoanalysis (1856-1939); Said that human behavior is irrational; behavior is the outcome of conflict between the id (irrational unconscious driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires) and ego (rationalizing conscious, what one can do) and superego (ingrained moral values, what one should do).

Erik Erikson

- "Eight Stages of Human Development" Based on crisis or conflict that a person resolves
- proposed that people develop a personality in eight psychosocial stages. At each stage we experience a crisis that upon resolving will have an effect on our ability to deal with the next one. 8 stages:
1. infancy (trust vs. mistrust)
2. toddlerhood (autonomy vs. shame and doubt)
3. preschooler (initiative vs. guilt)
4. elementary school (industry vs. inferiority)
5. adolescence (identity vs. role confusion)
6. young adulthood (intimacy vs. isolation)
7. middle adulthood( generativity vs. stagnation)
8. late adulthood (integrity vs., despair)

Jean Piaget

- 1896-1980; Field: cognition; Contributions: created a 4-stage theory of cognitive development, said that two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth (assimilation and accommodation)
- assimilation -
- accommodation -

Alfred Binet

- 1857-1911; Field: testing; Contributions: general IQ tests, designed test to identify slow learners in need of remediation-not applicable in the U.S. because too culture-bound (French)

Lawrence Kohlberg

- 1927-1987; Field: cognition, moral development; Contributions: created a theory of moral development that has 3 levels; focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behavior
- moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions. Most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why?
- built on Piaget's work to study moral development:
1. preconventional
2. conventional
3. post conventional

Carol Gilligan

- 1936-pres; Field: cognition; Contributions: maintained that Köhlberg's work was developed by only observing boys and overlooked potential differences between the habitual moral judgments of boys and girls; girls focus more on relationships than laws and principles

Personality - People

- Sigmund Freud, Karen Horney, Nancy Chodorow, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Hans Eyesenck, Raymond Cattell, Paul Costa, Robert McCrae, Gordon Allport, Hippocrates, William Sheldon, B.F. Skinner, Albert Bandura, George Kelly, Julian Rotter, Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers

Sigmund Freud

- 1856-1939; Field: psychoanalytic, personality; Contributions: id/ego/superego, reality and pleasure principles, ego ideal, defense mechanisms (expanded by Anna Freud), psychoanalysis, transference,
- Austrian neurologist who originated psychoanalysis (1856-1939); Said that human behavior is irrational; behavior is the outcome of conflict between the id (irrational unconscious driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires) and ego (rationalizing conscious, what one can do) and superego (ingrained moral values, what one should do).

Karen Horney

- 1885-1952; Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends

Nancy Chodorow

- a transition to feminist psychoanalysis, shifting the field of focus from the biological roots of psychoanalysis to 'psychoanalytic social psychology'. Her primary emphasis is on the structuring of gender roles, the assignment of relation and identity to these roles through language, meaning and socialisation. She also rejects the patriarchal basis of classical Freudian theory, assigning primacy to the Mother's relationship with children of both sexes.

Carl Jung

- 1875-1961; Field: neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; Contributions: people had conscious and unconscious awareness; archetypes; collective unconscious; libido is all types of energy, not just sexual; Studies: dream studies/interpretation

Alfred Adler

- 1870-1937; Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: basic mistakes, style of life, inferiority/superiority complexes, childhood influences personality formation; Studies: Birth Order

Hans Eyesenck

- believed that by classifying all people along an introversion-extraversion scale and a stable-unstable scale, one could describe their personalities

Raymond Cattell

- 1905-1998; Field: intelligence; Contributions: fluid & crystal intelligence; 3 domains of personality sphere (personality, ability, & motivation), 16 Personality Factors (personality test)

Paul Costa

- psychologist associated with the five-factor model of personality, worked with Robert McCrae
- Created the "Five Factor Model" (big five) - simplest of all trait theories - 5 factors that encompass all others; Openness - open to fantasies, feelings, aesthetics, ideas, values; Conscientiousness - competent, prefers structure, dutiful, disciplined; Extroversion - assertive, warm, positive, active, seek excitement; Agreeableness - trusts others, honest, cooperative, sympathetic; Neuroticism - anxiety, depression, hostility, self-conscious, act impulsively, experience a sense of vulnerability

Robert McCrae

- With Paul Costa, an author of NEO PI R. the standard questionnaire measure of the Five Factor Model (FFM), provides a systematic assessment of emotional, interpersonal, experiential, attitudinal, and motivational styles a detailed personality description that can be a valuable resource for a variety of professionals.

Gordon Allport

- 1897-1967; Field: trait theory of personality; Contributions: list of 11,000 traits, 3 levels of traits-cardinal, central, and secondary, American psychologist and trait theorist who researched the idea that individual personalities are unique,
- A psychologist perhaps best-known as one of the founding figures of personality psychology. He also developed a trait theory of personality that described three broad categories of personality traits
- trait theory of personality; 3 levels of traits:
1. cardinal
2. central
3. secondary

Hippocrates

- "Founder of Medicine" During the Golden Age in Greece he was a scientist that believed all diseases came from natural causes. He also had high ideals for physicians & an oath was made that is still used today.

William Sheldon

- 1898-1977; Field: personality; Contributions: theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by genetic endowment: endomorphic (large), mesomorphic (average), and ectomorphic (skinny)
- Concluded that ciriminality was more prominent in boys with muscular builds.

B.F. Skinner

- 1904-1990; Field: behavioral; Contributions: created techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behavior in order to observe the effects of subsequent behavior; Studies: Skinner box

Albert Bandura

- 1925-present; Field: sociocultural; Contributions: pioneer in observational learning, stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others;
- Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play,
- Famous for the Bobo Doll experiments on observational learning & influence in the Socio-Cognitive Perspective
- "Modeling": Attention, Retention, Reproduction, & Motivation

George Kelly

- he believed (personal construct theory) our personality consists of our thoughts about ourselves, including our biases, errors, mistakes, and false conclusions

Julian Rotter

- Describes his social learning theory as expectancy reinforcement of developed constructs. Learning situations are inextricably fused with needs requiring satisfaction through mediation by other.

Abraham Maslow

- 1908-1970; Field: humanism; Contributions: hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied, self-actualization, transcendence
- (American, 1908-1970) principally known for two works, Motivation and Personality and Toward a Psychology of Being, that introduced his theory of the "hierarchy of needs" (food, shelter, love, esteem, etc.) and its pinnacle, the need for "self-actualization." Self-actualized people are those who understand their individual needs and abilities and who have families, friends, and colleagues that support them and allow them to accomplish things on which they place value. The lowest unmet need on the hierarchy tends to dominate conscious thought.

Carl Rogers

- 1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person
- Developed "client-centered" therapy

Testing and Individual Differences - People

- Francis Galton, Charles Spearmen, Howard Gardner, Daniel Goleman, Robert Sternberg, Alfred Binet, Louis Terman, David Wechsler

Francis Galton

-, differential psychology AKA "London School" of Experimental Psychology; Contributions: behavioral genetics, maintains that personality & ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance; compared identical & fraternal twins, hereditary differences in intellectual ability
- interested in link between heredity and intelligence
- founder of the eugenics movement

Charles Spearman

- 1863-1945; Field: intelligence; Contributions: found that specific mental talents were highly correlated, concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled 'g' (general ability)

Howard Gardner

- 1943-present; Field: intelligence; Contributions: devised the theory of multiple intelligences (logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic)