Exam 2

acquisition

period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response

associative learning

form of learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment (classical and operant conditioning)

classical conditioning

learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior

cognitive map

mental picture of the layout of the environment

conditioned response (CR)

response caused by the conditioned stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

continuous reinforcement

rewarding a behavior every time it occurs

extinction

decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus

fixed interval reinforcement schedule

behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time

fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

set number of responses must occur before a behavior is rewarded

higher-order conditioning

(also, second-order conditioning) using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus

instinct

unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of behavior; instincts are thought to be more prevalent in lower animals than in humans

latent learning

learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it

law of effect

behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged

learning

change in behavior or knowledge that is the result of experience

model

person who performs a behavior that serves as an example (in observational learning)

negative punishment

taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior

negative reinforcement

taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior

neutral stimulus (NS)

stimulus that does not initially elicit a response

observational learning

type of learning that occurs by watching others

operant conditioning

form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated

partial reinforcement

rewarding behavior only some of the time

positive punishment

adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior

positive reinforcement

adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior

primary reinforcer

has innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water, shelter, sex)

punishment

implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behavior

radical behaviorism

staunch form of behaviorism developed by B. F. Skinner that suggested that even complex higher mental functions like human language are nothing more than stimulus-outcome associations

reflex

unlearned, automatic response by an organism to a stimulus in the environment

reinforcement

implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behavior

secondary reinforcer

has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips)

shaping

rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior

spontaneous recovery

return of a previously extinguished conditioned response

stimulus discrimination

ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

stimulus generalization

demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

unconditioned response (UCR)

natural (unlearned) behavior to a given stimulus

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that elicits a reflexive response

variable interval reinforcement schedule

behavior is rewarded after unpredictable amounts of time have passed

variable ratio reinforcement schedule

number of responses differ before a behavior is rewarded

vicarious punishment

process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior

vicarious reinforcement

process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior

anal stage

psychosexual stage in which children experience pleasure in their bowel and bladder movements

analytical psychology

Jung's theory focusing on the balance of opposing forces within one's personality and the significance of the collective unconscious

archetype

pattern that exists in our collective unconscious across cultures and societies

collective unconscious

common psychological tendencies that have been passed down from one generation to the next

congruence

state of being in which our thoughts about our real and ideal selves are very similar

conscious

mental activity (thoughts, feelings, and memories) that we can access at any time

Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks Test (C-TCB)

projective test designed to be culturally relevant to African Americans, using images that relate to African-American culture

culture

all of the beliefs, customs, art, and traditions of a particular society

defense mechanism

unconscious protective behaviors designed to reduce ego anxiety

displacement

ego defense mechanism in which a person transfers inappropriate urges or behaviors toward a more acceptable or less threatening target

ego

aspect of personality that represents the self, or the part of one's personality that is visible to others

Five Factor Model

theory that personality is composed of five factors, including openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism

genital stage

psychosexual stage in which the focus is on mature sexual interests

heritability

proportion of difference among people that is attributed to genetics

id

aspect of personality that consists of our most primitive drives or urges, including impulses for hunger, thirst, and sex

ideal self

person we would like to be

incongruence

state of being in which there is a great discrepancy between our real and ideal selves

individual psychology

school of psychology proposed by Adler that focuses on our drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority

inferiority complex

refers to a person's feelings that they lack worth and don't measure up to others' or to society's standards

latency period

psychosexual stage in which sexual feelings are dormant

locus of control

beliefs about the power we have over our lives; an external locus of control is the belief that our outcomes are outside of our control; an internal locus of control is the belief that we control our own outcomes

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

personality test composed of a series of true/false questions in order to establish a clinical profile of an individual

neurosis

tendency to experience negative emotions

oral stage

psychosexual stage in which an infant's pleasure is focused on the mouth

personality

long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways

phallic stage

psychosexual stage in which the focus is on the genitals

projection

ego defense mechanism in which a person confronted with anxiety disguises their unacceptable urges or behaviors by attributing them to other people

Projective test

personality assessment in which a person responds to ambiguous stimuli, revealing hidden feelings, impulses, and desires

psychosexual stages of development

stages of child development in which a child's pleasure-seeking urges are focused on specific areas of the body called erogenous zones

rationalization

ego defense mechanism in which a person confronted with anxiety makes excuses to justify behavior

reaction formation

ego defense mechanism in which a person confronted with anxiety swaps unacceptable urges or behaviors for their opposites

real self

person who we actually are

reciprocal determinism

belief that one's environment can determine behavior, but at the same time, people can influence the environment with both their thoughts and behaviors

regression

ego defense mechanism in which a person confronted with anxiety returns to a more immature behavioral state

repression

ego defense mechanism in which anxiety-related thoughts and memories are kept in the unconscious

Rorschach Inkblot Test

projective test that employs a series of symmetrical inkblot cards that are presented to a client by a psychologist in an effort to reveal the person's unconscious desires, fears, and struggles

Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB)

projective test that is similar to a word association test in which a person completes sentences in order to reveal their unconscious desires, fears, and struggles

selective migration

concept that people choose to move to places that are compatible with their personalities and needs

self-concept

our thoughts and feelings about ourselves

self-efficacy

someone's level of confidence in their own abilities

social-cognitive theory

Bandura's theory of personality that emphasizes both cognition and learning as sources of individual differences in personality

sublimation

ego defense mechanism in which unacceptable urges are channeled into more appropriate activities

superego

aspect of the personality that serves as one's moral compass, or conscience

TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test

projective test designed to be culturally relevant to minority groups, especially Hispanic youths, using images and storytelling that relate to minority culture

temperament

how a person reacts to the world, including their activity level, starting when they are very young

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

projective test in which people are presented with ambiguous images, and they then make up stories to go with the images in an effort to uncover their unconscious desires, fears, and struggles

traits

characteristic ways of behaving

unconscious

mental activity of which we are unaware and unable to access

anorexia nervosa

eating disorder characterized by an individual maintaining body weight that is well below average through starvation and/or excessive exercise

bariatric surgery

type of surgery that modifies the gastrointestinal system to reduce the amount of food that can be eaten and/or limiting how much of the digested food can be absorbed

basolateral complex

part of the brain with dense connections with a variety of sensory areas of the brain; it is critical for classical conditioning and attaching emotional value to memory

binge eating disorder

type of eating disorder characterized by binge eating and associated distress

bisexual

emotional, romantic, and/or erotic attraction to those of the same gender or to those of another gender

body language

emotional expression through body position or movement

bulimia nervosa

type of eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time

central nucleus

part of the brain involved in attention and has connections with the hypothalamus and various brainstem areas to regulate the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems' activity

cognitive-mediational theory

our emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus

components of emotion

physiological arousal, psychological appraisal, and subjective experience

cultural display rule

one of the culturally specific standards that govern the types and frequencies of emotions that are acceptable