Psych Unit 2

neuropsychological tests

Tests that assess broad ranges of skills and abilities, brain-behavior relations, a person's assets and deficits, and can indicate brain damage (similar to intelligence tests)

Problems with Neuropsychological Tests:

false positives or false negatives

false positive

saying "you have a problem" but you don't

false negative

saying "you don't have a problem" but you do

neuroimaging

pictures of the brain

structure exam

checks for damage and size of various parts

function exam

what parts are functioning during specific tasks, look at blood flow

Used for imaging brain structure:

CAT or CT scan, MRI

CAT scan (computerized axial tomography)

utilizes x-rays of the brain; pictures in slices

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

better resolution than CAT scan; operates via strong magnetic field around head; more expensive, time-consuming, and difficult for some patients to tolerate.

used for imaging brain function:

PET, SPECT, or functional MRI

PET

positron emission tomography

SPECT

single photon emission computed tomography

Functional MRI (fMRI)

technique that uses magnetic fields to visualize brief changes in brain activity

advantages of neuroimaging

provide detailed information regarding brain function

disadvantages of neuroimaging

procedures are expensive, lack adequate norms, and have limited clinical utility (for now)

psychophysiological assessment

methods used to assess brain structure, function, and activity of the nervous system

Psychophysiological assessment domains:

-electroencephalogram (EEG)
-Heart rate and respiration
-electrodermal response levels
-electromyography (EMG)
-Penile plethysmograph

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

assesses brain wave activity

heart rate and respiration

assesses cardiorespiratory activity

electrodermal response and levels

assesses sweat gland activity

Electromyography (EMG)

assesses muscle tension

penile plethysmograph

assesses sexual arousal

clinical assessment

idiographic approach; what is unique to this person (personality traits, family background, culture, other circumstances)

psychiatric diagnosis

nomothetic approach; applying what we know about a person to what we know about people more broadly. Seeing if specific problems fit with a general class of problems

Diagnostic classification

-Classification is central to all sciences
-Develop categories based on shared attributes

Taxonomy

classification in a scientific context

nosology

taxonomy in psychological/medical contexts

Nomenclature

nosological labels (e.g. panic disorder)

2 widely used classification systems

ICD-11, DSM-5

ICD-11

International Classification of Diseases and Health related problems, published by the World Health Organization

DSM-5 (2013)

-Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM); published by the American Psychiatric Association
-Emphasis on understanding that many (most) symptoms aren't specific to a single disorder but cut across many disorders (e.g. anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation)
-Introduction of new dimensional measures that exist across disorders

Classical (or pure) categorical approach- categories

-yes/no decisions. Each disorder is viewed as fundamentally different from others. Clear underlying cause. Individual required to meet all requirements for classification
-Useful in medicine. Know diagnosis, know treatment
-Viewed as inappropriate to complexity of psychological disorders

Dimensional approach- classification along dimensions

-Symptoms or disorders existing on a continuum (e.g. 0 to 100)
-Patients might be mildly depressed (60) and moderately anxious (70). -Create a profile to represent person's functioning
-No agreement on number of dimensions or which dimensions required

Prototypical approach- both classical and dimensional

-Categorical (yes/no decisions) but an individual does not have to fit every symptom. Rather, patient must meet some minimal number of prototypical criteria (e.g. 5 of 9 depression symptoms)
-Creates within-category heterogeneity
-Presumes homogeneity within the "yes" and "no" group

Purposes of the DSM System

Aid communication, evaluate prognosis, need for treatment, and treatment planning

DSM-I (1952) and DSM-II (1968)

both relied on unproven theories and were unreliable

DSM-III (1980) through IV (2000)

-atheoretical, emphasizing clinical description not underlying etiology
-Detailed criterion sets for disorders
-Emphasis on reliability (inter-rater; test-retest)
-Questions about validity

Questions Driving a Science of Psychopathology

What problems cause distress or impair functioning? Why do people behave in unusual ways? How can we help people behave in more adaptive ways?

basic components in research

hypothesis and research design

independent variable

the variable that causes and/or influences behavior

dependent variable

the behavior influenced by the independent variable

internal validity

did the independent variable produce the outcomes?

external validity

are the findings generalizable (e.g. to other settings, other locations, other types of samples, other problems)?

Confounds

factors that might make the results uninterpretable. Minimizing these increases internal validity

control group

individuals NOT exposed to IV but like the experimental group in every other way

random assignment procedures

individuals assigned to either experimental group or control group randomly; avoid some systematic bias

analog models

study related phenomenon in controlled conditions of laboratory setting; alcohol

relation between internal and external validity

Can be at odds. We want to control any confounds that could impact results, BUT, also want results to generalize to the "real world"

statistical methods

Branch of mathematics Helps to protect against biases in evaluating data

Statistical significance

are the results due to chance?

Size of the effect (e.g., correlation, difference in means)

Level of significance

Sample size

clinical significance

are the results clinically meaningful?

Balancing statistical vs. clinical significance

Evaluate effect size (statistical measures that tell the magnitude of effect but focuses less on sample size)

case study method

Extensive observation and detailed description of a client Foundation for early developments in psychopathology

limitations of case studies

Lacks scientific rigor and suitable controls

Internal validity is typically weak

Often entails numerous confounds

Finding unique to the individual

More inference from "researcher"

research by correlation

Statistical relation between two or more variables No independent variable is manipulated

Correlation and Causation

Problem of directionality (e.g. breakups and depression; substance use and impulsivity)

Correlation DOES NOT mean causation (e.g., smoking and drinking)

correlation and strength of association

Range from -1 to 1

Why use correlation studies?

Can't randomly assign individuals to groups and can't manipulate IV (e.g., smoking; psychological disorder)

Epidemiological research

-Study incidence, prevalence, and course of disorders
-What factors are associated with frequency of disorders
-Goal to learn about etiology of disorders

Incidence

number of new cases during a specified time

Prevalence

number of people with a disorder at any given time

Distribution

more or less common in certain populations

experimental research

• Manipulation of independent variables (e.g., therapy or not, meds or not, levels of exercise)

• Random assignment

• Attempt to establish causal relations

• Premium on internal validity

Group Experimental Designs

control groups- placebo vs double blind controls

placebo group

ensure that treatment effect isn't due to expectation that one will improve. Easy to do with medications; less so with psychological treatment

double blind

both researchers and participants are unaware of their group assignment

comparative treatment designs

Type of group design Compare different forms of treatment in similar persons Addresses treatment process and outcome

single-case experimental design

research tactic in which an independent variable is manipulated for a single individual, allowing cause-and-effect conclusions but with limited generalizability

Types of single subject designs

Withdrawal designs Multiple baseline designs

withdrawal design

-baseline, treatment, withdrawal

pros and cons of withdrawal design

-better sense if treatment caused changes
-remove a treatment that might be helpful; risk relaplse; impossible to "withdraw" most psychological treatments

multiple baseline design

start intervention at different times across settings (e.g. home vs school) or behaviors (e.g. hitting, talking back, doing homework)

Pros and cons of multiple baseline design

-don't have to withdraw treatment
-still making conclusions on the basis of a small population

Genetic Research Strategies

family studies, adoptee studies, twin studies, and genetic wide association studies

behavioral genetics

-the study of the interaction among genes, experience, and behavior
-phenotype vs. genotype

Phenotype

observable characteristics or behavior of an individual

genotype

genetic make-up of an individual

family studies

examine behavioral pattern/emotional traits in family members (e.g. schizophrenia; alcohol use)

adoptee studies

allow separation of environment from genetic contributions

twin studies

evaluate psychopathology on fraternal vs. identical twins

Genetic wide association studies

locate site of related genes

important in prevention research

Study of of risk factors for development of disorder (biological, psychological, environmental)

important in treatment research

What helps individuals recover (e.g. psychoeducation, emotional support, medication, behavioral activation)

Time-based research strategies

cross-sectional designs and longitudinal designs

cross-sectional design

take a cross section of the population across different age groups and compare on a certain characteristic

cohorts

participants in each age group of a study with a cross-sectional design

problem with cross-sectional design

differences across ages may be due to both age and dissimilar experiences (substance use and 1960s)

cohort effect

confounding effect of age and experience. Major limitation of cross-sectional designs

longitudinal designs

follow one group over time and assess changes in individuals

longitudinal design pros and cons

pros: -No cohort effect problem -Gets us closer to understanding causality

cons: -lengthy -expensive -topic may no longer be relevant after completion -cross-generational effect

cross-generational effect

may not be possible to generalize study to other groups whose experiences are quite different

Value of cross culture research

Studying abnormal behavior from various cultures can be informative; tells us about origins and treatment of disorders from different perspectives

Issues in Cross-Cultural Research

-Clarify how psychopathology manifests in different ethnic groups (same terminology may look or feel very different across cultures)
-different thresholds for abnormal behavior
-treatments exists within cultural context

Components of a research program

-No one study will definitely answer the question
-Studies proceed asking slightly different questions, using slightly different procedures
-Conducted in stages, often involving replication
-Scientific knowledge typically builds incrementally

anxiety

Future oriented state, Characterized by marked negative affect, Somatic symptoms of tension, Apprehension about future danger or misfortune

fear

Present-oriented mood state, Immediate fight or flight response to danger or threat, Strong avoidance/escapist tendencies, Abrupt activation of the sympathetic nervous system

Characteristics of Anxiety Disorders

• Pervasive and persistent symptoms of anxiety and fear

• Involve excessive avoidance and escape

• Cause clinically significant distress and impairment

panic attack

Abrupt experience of intense fear or discomfort accompanied by several physical symptoms

expected panic attack

happens in context of obvious cue or trigger