AP Psych Unit 2 (Roberts)

Nervous System

the body's electrochemical communication circuitry

Plasticity

the brain's special physical capacity for change

Afferent/Sensory Nerves

Nerves that carry information about the external environment to the brain and spinal cord via sensory receptors

Efferent/Motor Nerves

Nerves that carry information out of the brain and spinal cord to other areas of the body

Central Nervous System (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body

Somatic Nervous system

The body system consisting of the sensory nerves, whose function is to convey information from the skin and muscles to the CNS about conditions such as pain and temperature, and the motor nerves, whose function is to tell muscles what to do.

Autonomic Nervous System

the body system that takes messages to and from the body's internal organs, monitoring such processes as breathing, heart rate, and digestion

Sympathetic nervous system

the part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to mobilize it for action and thus is involved in the experience of stress

Parasympathetic Nervous System

the part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body

Neurons

one or two types of cells in the nervous system; neurons are the type of nerve cell that handles the information processing function.

Mirror Neurons

nerve cells in the brain that are activated (in human and nonhuman primates) both when an action is performed and when the organism observes the action being performed by another

Glial Cells (Glia)

The second of two types of cells in the nervous system; glial cells provide support, nutritional benefits, and other functions and keep neurons running smoothly.

Cell body

The part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, which directs the manufacture of substances that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance.

Dendrites

treelike fibers projecting from a neuron, which receive information and orient it toward the neuron's cell body

Axon

the part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body toward other cells

Myelin Sheath

a layer of fat cells that encases and insulates most axons

Resting potential

the stable, negative charge of an inactive neuron

Action Potential

the brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon

All-or-Nothing Principle

The principle that once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity (its threshold), it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any intensity.

Synapses

Tiny spaces between neurons; the gaps between neurons are referred to as synaptic gaps.

Neurotransmitters

chemical substances that are stored in very tiny sacs within the terminal buttons and involved in transmitting information across a synaptic gap to the next neuron

Acetylcholine

stimulates neurons involved in muscle action, learning and memory

GABA

inhibition of neurons firing in brain

Glutamate

excites neuron to fire, involved in learning and memory

Nonepinephrine

Excites heart, intestines, and urogenital tract, control alertness

Dopamine

control voluntary movements, sleep, mood, attention, learning, reward recognition

Serotinin

regulation of sleep, mood, attention, learning

Endorphins

natural opiates- depress nervous system activity and eliminate pain

Oxytocin

experience with love and social bonding

Neural Networks

networks of nerve cells that integrate sensory and motor output

Brain lesioning

disruption of brain tissue

Electrical Recording

electroencephalograph (EEG) brain electrical activity

Brain imaging

CT = 3D
PET = glucose
MRI = magnetic field for images
Functional MRI = function and magnetic field

Hindbrain

located at the skull's rear, the lowest portion of the brain, consisting of the medulla, cerebellum, and pons

Brainstem

the stemlike brain area that includes much of the hindbrain (excluding the cerebellum) and the midbrain; it connects with the spinal cord at its lower end and then extends upward to encase the reticular formation in the midbrain

Midbrain

located between the hindbrain and the forebrain, an area in which many nerve-fiber systems ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain; in particular, the midbrain relays information between the brain and eyes and ears

Reticular formation

a system in the midbrain comprising a diffuse collection of neurons involved in stereotyped patterns of behavior such as walking, sleeping, and turning to attend to a sudden noise

Forebrain

the brain's largest division and its most forward part

Limbic System

A loosely connected network of structures under the cerebral cortex, important in both memory and emotion. Its two principal structures are the amygdala and the hippocampus.

Amygdala

An almond-shaped structure within the base of the temporal lobe that is involved in the discrimination of objects that are necessary for the organism's survival, such as appropriate food, mates, and social rivals.

Hipocampus

the structure in the limbic system that has a special role in the storage of memories

Thalamus

Forebrain structure that sits at the top of the brain stem in the brain's central core and serves as an important relay station

Basal Ganglia

Large neuron clusters located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex that work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements.

Hypothalamus

A small forebrain structure, located just below the thalamus, that monitors three pleasurable activities—eating, drinking, and sex—as well as emotion, stress, and reward.

Cerebral Cortex

Part of the forebrain, the outer layer of the brain, responsible for the most complex mental functions such as thinking and planning

Neocortex

The outermost part of the cerebral cortex, making up 80 percent of the cortex in the human brain.

Occipital Lobes

structures located at the back of the head that respond to visual stimuli

Temporal lobes

structures in the cerebral cortex that are located just above the ears and are involved in hearing, language processing, and memory

Frontal Lobes

the portions of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead that are involved in personality, intelligence, and the control of voluntary muscles

Parietal Lobes

structures at the top and toward the rear of the head that are involved in registering spatial location, attention, and motor control

Somatosensory Cortex

A region in the cerebral cortex that processes information about body sensations, located at the front of the parietal lobes

Motor Cortex

A region in the cerebral cortex that processes information about voluntary movement, located just behind the frontal lobes.

Association Cortex/Area

the region of the cerebral cortex that is the site of the highest intellectual functions, such as thinking and problem solving

Corpus Callosum

The large bundle of axons that connects the brain's two hemispheres, responsible for relaying information between the two sides.

Endocrine System

The body system consisting of a set of glands that regulate the activities of certain organs by releasing their chemical products into the bloodstream.

Glands

Organs or tissues in the body that create chemicals that control many of our bodily functions

Hormones

chemical messengers that are produced by the endocrine glands and carried by the bloodstream to all parts of the body

Pituitary gland

A pea-sized gland just beneath the hypothalamus that controls growth and regulates other glands.

Adrenal Glands

Glands at the top of each kidney that are responsible for regulating mood, energy level and the ability to cope with stress.

Pancreas

A dual-purpose gland under the stomach that performs both digestive and endocrine functions.

Ovaries

sex-related endocrine glands that produce hormones involved in female sexual development and reproduction

Testes

sex-related endocrine glands in the scrotum that produce hormones involved in men's sexual development and reproduction

Stem Cells

unique primitive cells that have the capacity to develop into most types of human cells

Chromosomes

In the human cell, threadlike structures that come in 23 pairs, one member of each pair originating from each parent, and that contain the remarkable substance DNA.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

a complex molecule in cell's chromosomes that carries genetic information

Genes

The units of heredity information, consisting of short segments of chromosomes composed of DNA

Dominant-recessive genes principle

The principle that, if one gene of a pair is dominant and one is recessive, the dominant gene overrides the recessive gene. A recessive gene exerts its influence only if both genes of a pair are recessive.

Molecular Genetics

manipulation of genes using technology to determine their effect on behavior

Selective Breeding

organisms are chosen for reproduction based on how much a particular trait they display

Genome with association method

identifying genetic variations linked to particular diseases

genes close in dna more likely to be inherited together

dna obtained from participants who already have the disease

behavior genetics

the study of the degree and nature of heredity's influence on behavior

Genotype

An individual's genetic heritage; his or her actual genetic material.

Phenotype

an individual's observable characteristics

Stress

the responses of individuals to environmental stressors

Stressors

circumstances and events that threaten individuals and tax their coping abilities and that cause physiological changes to ready the body to handle the assault of stress

Stream of consciousness

term used by William James to describe the mind as a continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings.

Consciousness

An individual's awareness of external events and internal sensations under a condition of arousal, including awareness of the self and thoughts about one's experiences.

Reticular Activating System

a network of structures including the brain stem, medulla, and thalamus that are involved in the experience of arousal and engagement with the environment

Theory of Mind

individuals' understanding that they and others think, feel, perceive, and have private experiences

Controlled processes

the most alert states of human consciousness, during which individuals actively focus their efforts toward a goal

Executive function

higher-order, complex cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving

Automatic processes

states of consciousness that require little attention and do not interfere with other ongoing activities

Daydreaming

dreaming while awake, spontaneous while doing something does not require our full attention

Unconscious thought

according to Freud, a reservoir of unacceptable wishes, feelings, and thoughts that are beyond conscious awareness

Sleep

a natural state of rest for the body and mind that involves the reversible loss of consciousness

Biological Rythms

Periodic physiological fluctuations in the body, such as the rise and fall of hormones and accelerated or decelerated cycles of the brain activity, that can influence behavior.

Circadian Rhythms

daily behavioral or physiological cycles that involve the sleep/wake cycle, body temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar level

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

A small brain structure that uses input from the retina to synchronize its own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark; the body's way of monitoring the change from day to night.

Stage W

person is awake, beta and alpha waves

Stage N1 (non-REM1) sleep

while just falling asleep, myodonic jerks, theta waves

Stage N2 (non Rem2) sleep

muscle activity decreases, and the person is no longer consciously aware of the environment, theta waves

Stage N3 (non REM3) sleep

deepest sleep, when awakened people are disoriented or confused. Delta Waves

REM sleep

an active stage of sleep during which dreaming occurs

Manifest Content

According to Freud, the surface content of a dream, containing dream symbols that disguise the dream's true meaning.

Latent content

According to Freud, a dream's hidden content; its unconscious and true meaning.

Cognitive Theory of Dreaming

theory proposing that dreaming can be understood by applying the same cognitive concepts used to study the waking mind

Activation-Synthesis theory of dreaming

Theory that dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals generated from activity in the lower part of the brain and that dreams result from the brain's attempts to find logic in random brain activity that occurs during sleep.

Psychoactive Drugs

drugs that act on the nervous system to alter consciousness, modify perception, and change mood

Tolerance

the need to take increasing amounts of a drug to get the same effect (continued drug use)