Diversity Exam 3

Skeletal systems, immune systems, endocrine systems, excretory systems, reproduction &behavior

determination definition

certain cell fate acquired

proximate cause definition

immediate mechanistic causes of a behavior (HOW it is done)

ultimate cause definition

what led to the evolution of the behavior over evolutionary time

fixed action patterns

expressed without prior learning and very hard to change via learning

biological determinism

behaviors are determined by genetics (cascade of impacts causing behavior, starting with genes)

epigenetics

study of changes in gene expression or set of genes that occur WITHOUT DNA sequence changes

learning

ability of individual animals to modify their behavior because of experiences

innate behaviors

genetically programmed behaviors

promiscuous mating

each female and male mates with as many others as possible

polygyny

1 male, multiple females in one breeding season

polyandry

1 female, multiple males in one breeding season

sexual dimorphism

pronounced morphological differences between the sexes of a species

differentiation definition

set of distinct traits acquired

which side of amphibian eggs has more yolk?

vegetal pole

what causes the grey crescent?

rotation of cortical (outer cytoplasm) so that side opposite sperm entry is unpigmented

what happens if a zygote is cut in half so that one half has no grey crescent?

one normal organism will form, the other will not develop

what does the blastophore determine?

position of anterior and posterior ends

mosaic development

each daughter cell has its own development instructions

regulative development

cells communicate to coordinate development (don’t have only one fate decided)

which pole cells become the ectoderm and why?

animal pole cells, because they are smaller and divide faster, so they cover the vegetal pole cells

what does the ectoderm form?

epithelial and nervous tissue, epidermis, hair

what does the endoderm form?

gut, lungs, liver, gall bladder, gas exchange membranes

what does the mesoderm form?

notochord, bones, muscles, blood, heart

what molecule induces ectoderm cell development into notochord?

Shh (sonic hedgehog)

what is the organizer of the embryo development?

dorsal lip

what morphogen results in hand and food development?

Shh, produced in zone of polarizing activity in hands and feet

direct development definition

allometric growth (cells change in relative size)

indirect development definition

growth in size and includes changes in morphology

totipotency definition

cells can give rise to all the different kinds of cells in an organism

antidiuresis definition

low volume of concentrated urine being passed

what are skeletal systems used for?

support

hydrostatic skeleton

fluid inside a body cavity surrounded by muscle, moved by changes in fluid pressure

cuticle

exoskeleton type, made of chitin

osteoblast function

place new matrix materials on bone surfaces

osteocytes

used to be osteoblasts, inside the cavities of bone

osteoclast function

break down old bones and release calcium from them into EC fluid

membranous bone

forms on scaffold of connective tissue membrane

cartilage bone

solidify over time to form bone, found in limb bones

epiphyseal plate

cartilage formation between ossification centers

compact bone characteristics

hard and solid, outer region

marrow characteristics

living, stores fat or produces red blood cells in cavities

spongy bone characteristics

inside compact bone, has many small cavities

cancellous bone characteristics

rigid, internal cavities, looks “spongy”

tendon

connects muscles to bones

fulcrum

joint between load and where the force is

load arm

distance between load and fulcrum

force arm

distance between load and force

incisors

teeth at front of mouth

canines

teeth specialized for piercing tougher foods (aka meat)

premolars

back teeth adapted for crushing and shredding

molars

far back teeth adapted for crushing and shredding

temporomandibular joint

specialized jaw joint

two main types of immune system

adaptive and innate

components of innate system

membrane attack compounds, natural killer cells, histamine, physical barriers, lysozymes, defensins, phagocytosis

components of adaptive system

B cells and T cells

innate system characteristics

fast, not specific

adaptive system characteristics

specific/aimed, slower, long-lasting

membrane attack compounds

multiple proteins form a pore in a plasma membrane so that EC fluid flows in and cell lyses

histamine

induces constriction of blood vessels at wound, triggers phagocytosis through complement system

toll-like receptors

fragment of bacterium binds to it, activates protein kinase cascade and causes shape change of transcription factor, transcription factor binds to promoters in nucleus

leukocytes

white blood cells; second line of defense against pathogens

phagocytes

ingest pathogens via phagocytosis

mast cells

release histamine when damaged

components of blood plasma

ions, small molecule solutes, solube proteins

lymph

fluid derived from blood and other tissues, lacks red blood cells, found in lymph nodes and blood plasma

defensins

made by mucus membrane, toxic to pathogens

cytokines

produced in response to pattern recognition receptors (recognize nonself molecules), induce changes in T and B cells

complement system parts

1. binding to components on pathogen’s surface to help phagocytes recognize pathogen
2. inflammation response activated and phagocytes attracted
3. inserting into cell membranes of pathogens and causing lysis

allergic reactions

harmless nonself molecules bind to mast cells and cause inflammation

autoimmune diseases

immune system can’t tell difference between self and nonself molecules, attacks body

sepsis

inflammation spreads throughout body

antigen

on pathogen, binds to a specific antibody and causes immune response

epitote

specific site on antigen that is recognized by the immune system

antibody

antigen binds to this, helps identify pathogens, produced by B lymphocytes

immediate hypersensitivity

lots of IgE produced right away → activates mast cells to release histamine

delayed hypersensitivity

antigen is taken up by antigen-presenting cells and reaction doesn’t begin until hours after exposure to pathogen

passive immunity

pre-made antibodies are transferred to a different organism

2 types of adaptive immunity system

humoral and cell-mediated (cellular)

components of humoral system

antibodies and B cells

components of cell-mediated system

T cells and T cell receptors

what does the humoral system do?

creates antibodies to fight pathogens

recognition phase in immune response

antigen inserted into membrane of antigen-presenting cell

activation phase in immune response

T-helper cell recognizes the antigen, releases cytokines to stimulate B and cytotoxic T cells

Effector phase in immune response

B cells make antibodies and attract phagocytes to pathogen (humoral), cytotoxic T cells bind to cells with antigen and destroy them (cellular)

T-helper cell

T cell with a receptor for a specific antigen, activate adaptive immune system

immunoglobulin/antibody structure

2 heavy and 2 light polypeptide chains with a minimum of 2 antigen-binding sites across the chains

one antibody can bind to __ antigens

2

classes of antibodies

IgG, IgM, IgD, IgA, IgE

function of IgG

most abundant antibody in immune responses, provides immunity to fetus

function of IgM

antigen receptor on B cells, first class released by B cells during primary response

function of IgD

cell surface receptor on mature B cell, helps activate B cell

function of IgA

protects mucosal surfaces and prevents attachment of pathogens to epithelial cells

function of IgE

binds to mast cells and basophils to help induce antigen binding, which triggers histamine release

cytotoxic T cells (Tc)

bind to pathogens displaying the antigen they are able to see, causes pathogens to die

function of tregs

make sure immune system doesn’t spiral out of control

function of memory cells

can be used to fight same antigens in future

endocrine cells

secrete hormones into the blood, interact with neurons, slow and broadcast, prolonged

paracrines

affect functions of cells around the cell that secreted them

autocrines

affect the cell that released them

pheromones

chemical signals that are released into the environment and impact other individuals of the same species