PSCYH 1010 EXAM 2

regulatory focus theory

There are two primary motivation systems- promotion and prevention- that affect different people in different ways

Ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

situation selection

approach or avoid certain people, places, or objects

memory

the process of taking information, saving it over time, and calling it to mind later.

information processing model

model of memory involving three steps of encoding, storage and retrieval.

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

sensory memory

the earliest part of the memory process, in which the senses take in and very briefly hold information

echoic memory

The auditory sensory memory, or all the information the ears took in during the previous few seconds.

iconic memory

visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second

level of processing

How deeply information is processed

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units

rehersal

deliberately repeating information to enhance memory

matinance rehersal

information repeated in exactly the same form it was encoded

elaborative rehearsal

involves adding meaning or associations to information, which enhances memory

long-term potentiation

the increased connectivity between simultaneously stimulated neurons that forms the biological basis of memory

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

long-term memory

a seemingly limitless amount of information being held for extensive periods of time

wokring memory

a type of memory is processing or work is done on briefly held information

automatic processing (encoding)

the entrance of some information into long-term memory without any conscious processing

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

recognition

retrieval in which you determine whether or not your stored information matches the external information

retreival cues

reminders that facilitate retrieval of information from memory

encoding specificity

the effect of contextual information present when memory was encoded, such as physical surroundings, on retrieval

Priming

when recent experiences cause an increased likelihood of recalling certain memories

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

semantic memory

a type of explicit memory consisting of facts, figures, word meanings, and other general information

episodic memory

memory for one's personal first hand experiences

implicit memory

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously

procedural memory

implicit memory for skills involving automatic motor coordination

decay

fading of information from memory over time

retroactive interference

problems remembering older information caused by newer information

proactive interference

problems remembering newer information caused by older information

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

mnemonics

learning aids, strategies, and devices that improve recall through the use of retrieval cues

spacing effect

information is retained better if there is a longer period of time between sessions or relearning

amnesia

partial or total loss of memory

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

mis information effect

exposure to wrong info can make people misremember an event

involuntary memory

spontaneous retrieval of information in the absence of any intention to retrieve it

Learning

the process by which life experiences cause change in the behavior or thinking of an organism

What was Pavlov's experiment?

He noticed that the dogs he was working with salivated when he entered the room. He hypothesized that they associated him with his presence. To test this he wanted to see if they would associate, bell and the food.

What did Pavlov's experiment focus on?

classical conditioning

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

neutral stimulus

a stimulus that causes no response at all

unconditoned stimulus

a stimulus that causes a response that is automatic, not learned

conditioned stimulus

a formerly neutral stimulus that causes a response because of its link to the unconditioned stimulus

unconditioned response

automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus that occurs naturally without any need for learning

conditioned response

response to a conditioned stimulus acquired through learning

Generalization

Stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus that cause the same conditioned response

Discrimination

stimuli that are different from the conditioned stimulus fail to cause the same conditioned response

acquisition

the point in the learning process at which the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus because it causes the conditioned response

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response

spontaneous recovery

the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

higher-order conditioning

occurs when a conditioned stimulus becomes associated with a new unconditioned stimulus. (3 or more stimuli)

vicarious conditioning

classical conditioning that takes place via observation of others life experiences rather than ones own

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Reinforcement

An event following a response that strengthens the tendency to make that response.

positive reinforcement

Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. (Getting something desirable )

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping something or removing something undesirable.

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

secondary reinforcer

any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

representativeness heuristic

an educated guess based on similarity to a prototype

affect heuristic

An educated guess in which the worth of something is strongly influenced by how a person feels toward it.

dual process theory

The notion that every person possesses two separate types of thinking, one automatic and one deliberate.

durability bias

The overestimation of the expected length of the feeling produced by the outcome of a decision.

one-word stage

the stage in which children speak mainly in single words

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

Stanford-Binet Test

intelligence test based on the measure developed by Binet and Simon, adapted by Lewis Terman of Stanford University

what is the difference between punishment and reinforcement?

Punishment is intended to reduce the behavior. Reinforcement is to increase behavior.

what is the difference between classical and operant conditioning?

classical conditioning is concerned with the involuntary behaviors of an individual. Operant conditioning is concerned with voluntary behavior

what is involuntary behavior?

behaviors that are naturally going to occur, such as salvation when seeing food

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

incentive

something that induces a person to act

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

Cognitive Appraisal Theory

what you think about a stimulus causes the emotion

type 2 thinking

A commonly used name for judgment and reasoning strategies that are slower and require more effort than Type 1 thinking.

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

short-term memory

new information held shortly until is is either discarded or kept long term

continuous reinforcement

a pattern of reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial reinforcement

a pattern by which a behavior is reinforced only some of the times it occurs

fixed-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

variable-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

punishment

any consequence that decreases the future likelihood of a behavior

discriminative stimulus

A signal indicating that a particular behavior will be followed by a particular consequence.

Shaping

process of gradually learning a complex behavior through the reinforcement of each of its small steps.

observational learning

learning by observing others

mirror neurons

neurons in the brain that are activated when one observes another individual engage in an action and when one performs a similar action. (In the frontal lobe)