2nd semester hws terms

Alexander Kerensky

A Russian lawyer and politician who served as the Prime Minister of the Russian Provisional Government in 1917.

Alexei

The son of Nicholas II and Alexandra, who suffered from hemophilia.

Arctic/Permafrost

The Arctic refers to the region surrounding the North Pole, characterized by cold temperatures and icy conditions. Permafrost is permanently frozen ground found in the Arctic and other cold regions.

Bolsheviks

A faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party led by Vladimir Lenin, which later became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

Boyars

The highest-ranking nobles in Russia before the 17th century.

Communists

Supporters or members of the political ideology advocating for the establishment of a classless society where the means of production are owned and controlled by the community as a whole.

Czar

The title of the ruler in the Russian Empire, equivalent to "emperor" or "tsar."

Duma

The Russian legislative assembly established in 1906 under Nicholas II, marking the first step towards representative government.

Five Year Plan

A series of centralized economic plans implemented by the Soviet Union, aiming to rapidly industrialize the country over five-year periods.

Glasnost

A policy of increased openness and transparency in government and society implemented by Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union.

Grand Prince Vladimir of Kiev

A ruler of Kievan Rus who converted to Christianity and played a significant role in the Christianization of the region.

Hemophilia

A genetic disorder that impairs the body's ability to form blood clots, which affected several members of the Russian royal family, including Alexei, the son of Nicholas II.

Ivan the Great

Also known as Ivan III, he was the Grand Prince of Moscow and played a pivotal role in the consolidation of the Russian lands.

Ivan the Terrible

Also known as Ivan IV, he was the first Tsar of Russia and ruled with a reputation for extreme cruelty and autocratic rule.

Josef Stalin

The leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953, known for his totalitarian rule and implementation of widespread purges.

Kievan Rus

A medieval federation of East Slavic tribes and city-states that emerged in the 9th century and laid the foundation for the future Russian state.

Lenin's promise "Land, Peace, Bread"

A slogan used by Vladimir Lenin during the Russian Revolution, representing the demands of the Bolsheviks for land redistribution, an end to the war, and food for the population.

Mikhail Gorbachev

The last leader of the Soviet Union who implemented reforms such as glasnost and perestroika, ultimately leading to the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

NEP (New Economic Plan)

An economic policy introduced by Lenin in 1921 to rebuild the Soviet economy, allowing limited market-oriented activities and private enterprise.

Nicholas II

The last Tsar of Russia who abdicated in 1917, marking the end of the Romanov dynasty and the beginning of the Russian Revolution.

Nikita Khrushchev

The leader of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, known for his policy of de-Stalinization and the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Oprichniki

Ivan the Terrible's personal guard and secret police force, notorious for their acts of violence and repression.

Perestroika

A policy of political and economic restructuring implemented by Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union in the 1980s.

Peter the Great

The Russian Tsar who modernized Russia and expanded its territory, establishing Saint Petersburg as the new capital.

Purge

The removal, imprisonment, or execution of people perceived as threats or opponents, often carried out during periods of political repression.

Rasputin

A Russian mystic and advisor to the Romanov family, known for his influence over Tsarina Alexandra and controversial role in the Russian monarchy.

Russian Orthodox Church

The dominant religious institution in Russia, following the Eastern Orthodox tradition.

Serfs

Unfree agricultural laborers who were bound to the land and under the control of noble landowners in feudal societies.

Siberia

A vast region in Russia, known for its harsh climate and abundant natural resources.

Socialists

Advocates of a political and economic system characterized by collective ownership and democratic control of the means of production.

Steppe

A vast, treeless grassland found in Eurasia, characterized by temperate climates and nomadic pastoralist cultures.

Taiga

The world's largest biome, consisting of vast forests of coniferous trees found in northern regions, including Siberia.

Tribute

Payment, often in the form of goods or services, made by one ruler or state to another as a sign of submission or allegiance.

Tundra

A cold, treeless biome characterized by low temperatures, permafrost, and a short growing season.

Vladimir Lenin

The leader of the Bolshevik Party and the first head of the Soviet Union, known for his role in the Russian Revolution and the establishment of a communist state.

War communism

A policy implemented during the Russian Civil War, involving nationalization of industry and central control of the economy to support the Red Army.

1948 War

Also known as the Arab-Israeli War or the War of Independence, it was a conflict that occurred between the newly established State of Israel and a coalition of Arab states following the end of the British Mandate for Palestine.

1967 War/Six-Day War

A brief but decisive conflict between Israel and the neighboring Arab states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Israel achieved a swift military victory, resulting in the occupation of the Sinai Peninsula, the West Bank, East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights.

Abbasids

The Abbasid dynasty was the second Islamic caliphate (750-1258 CE) that succeeded the Umayyads. They moved the capital to Baghdad and played a significant role in promoting Islamic culture and knowledge.

Abu Bakr

The first caliph of Islam, Abu Bakr was a close companion of the Prophet Muhammad and succeeded him as the leader of the Muslim community.

Ahl al-dhimma

Refers to the non-Muslim subjects living under Islamic rule who were granted protection and certain rights in exchange for paying a poll tax (jizya).

Ali

Ali ibn Abi Talib was a cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad. He is revered by Shia Muslims as the first Imam and the rightful successor to the caliphate.

Arab revolt of 1936-1939

A widespread uprising by Palestinians against British rule and Jewish immigration in Mandatory Palestine during the years 1936-1939.

Balfour Declaration

A statement issued by the British government in 1917 expressing support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine.

Caliph

The political and religious successor to the Prophet Muhammad, serving as the leader of the Muslim community.

Camp David Accords

A peace agreement signed in 1978 between Egypt and Israel, brokered by the United States, which led to the normalization of relations between the two countries.

Crusaders

Christian armies from Western Europe who conducted a series of military campaigns, known as the Crusades, in the Middle East during the medieval period, with the aim of capturing Jerusalem and other holy sites.

Cuneiform

One of the earliest systems of writing, used in ancient Mesopotamia, involving wedge-shaped marks impressed onto clay tablets.

Desalination

The process of removing salt and other impurities from seawater to produce freshwater suitable for human consumption and irrigation.

Five Pillars of faith

The fundamental religious obligations of Islam, which include the Shahada (faith), Salat (prayer), Zakat (charity), Sawm (fasting), and Hajj (pilgrimage).

Had crime

In Islamic law, crimes categorized as Hudud offenses, which have fixed punishments prescribed in the Quran and Hadith.

Hadith

The sayings, actions, and approvals of the Prophet Muhammad, serving as a significant source of guidance for Muslims.

Hajj

The annual pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia, considered one of the Five Pillars of Islam.

Hejira

The migration of the Prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE, marking the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

Imam

In Shia Islam, an Imam is a religious and political leader who is considered the rightful successor to the Prophet Muhammad and holds authority over the community.

Intifada

Refers to two Palestinian uprisings against Israeli occupation in the late 20th century. The First Intifada took place from 1987 to 1993, and the Second Intifada occurred from 2000 to 2005.

Intifada II (or Intifada 2000)

The Second Intifada, which was a period of intensified Palestinian-Israeli violence and conflict that began in September 2000.

Kaaba

A sacred building located in the center of the Great Mosque of Mecca, considered the holiest site in Islam.

Khadija

The first wife of the Prophet Muhammad and one of the earliest converts to Islam.

Koran

The holy book of Islam, believed to be the word of God as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad.

Mandate

A system of governance established by the League of Nations in the aftermath of World War I, granting temporary control and administration of territories previously under Ottoman rule to various European powers.

Mawali

Non-Arab Muslims who converted to Islam and were granted full rights within the Muslim community.

Mosque

A place of worship for Muslims, where they gather for prayer and religious activities.

Ottomans

Refers to the Ottoman Empire, a major Islamic state that spanned from the 14th to the early 20th century, encompassing parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa.

PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization)

A political organization representing Palestinians, founded in 1964 with the aim of establishing a Palestinian state.

Qesas crime

In Islamic law, crimes categorized as Qesas offenses, which involve retaliation or retributive justice.

Qudi

A Jewish legal scholar and judge responsible for interpreting and applying Jewish law.

Rabbi

A Jewish scholar or teacher who is qualified to interpret and teach Jewish law and scripture.

Ramadan

The ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar, observed as a period of fasting, prayer, and reflection by Muslims worldwide.

Safavids

A Persian dynasty that ruled Iran from the 16th to the 18th century, known for its promotion of Shia Islam as the state religion.

Salat

The ritual prayer performed by Muslims, one of the Five Pillars of Islam.

Satrap

A provincial governor in the ancient Persian Empire.

Sawn

The observance of fasting during the month of Ramadan.

Seljuks

A Turkic dynasty that ruled over a vast empire, including parts of Central Asia, the Middle East, and Anatolia, from the 11th to the 13th century.

Shahada

The Islamic declaration of faith, proclaiming the belief in the oneness of God (Allah) and the acceptance of Muhammad as the final prophet.

Sharia

Islamic law, derived from the Quran and the Hadith, governing various aspects of personal, social, and political life for Muslims.

Shia

One of the two main branches of Islam, representing the minority sect that believes in the divine right of Ali and his descendants to lead the Muslim community.

Suez Canal Crisis

A political and military conflict that occurred in 1956 when Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, leading to a joint military intervention by Israel, France, and the United Kingdom.

Suleiman the Magnificent

The tenth sultan of the Ottoman Empire who ruled from 1520 to 1566, known for his military conquests and cultural patronage.

Sunni

The largest branch of Islam, representing the majority sect that accepts the first four caliphs as the rightful successors to the Prophet Muhammad.

Tazir crime

In Islamic law, crimes categorized as Tazir offenses, which are punishable by discretionary penalties.

Temple/Synagogue

A place of worship for Jews, where they gather for prayer and religious activities.

TeNaKh

An acronym for the Hebrew Bible, consisting of the Torah (Pentateuch), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings).

Theocracy

A form of government in which religious leaders hold the highest authority, and religious law is considered the basis of governance.

Umayyads

The first Islamic caliphate (661-750 CE) following the death of Ali, known for expanding the Muslim Empire and establishing Damascus as their capital.

UN Partition plan of Palestine

A United Nations resolution passed in 1947 that recommended the partition of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states.

Urban II

Pope Urban II, who initiated the First Crusade with his sermon at the Council of Clermont in 1095.

Yom Kippur War (1973 War)

A conflict between Israel and a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria, which began on the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur in 1973.

Zakat

The giving of alms or charitable donations, one of the Five Pillars of Islam.

Ziggurat

A type of monumental stepped tower built by ancient Mesopotamian civilizations as a temple or religious structure.

Zionism

A political movement that emerged in the late 19th century, advocating for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

Zoroastrianism

An ancient Persian religion founded by the prophet Zoroaster, characterized by the belief in a cosmic struggle between good and evil and the worship of Ahura Mazda as the supreme deity.

Andes

The Andes is the longest mountain range in the world, stretching along the western coast of South America for approximately 7,000 kilometers. It is home to several peaks over 6,000 meters, including Mount Aconcagua, the highest peak in the Western Hemisphere. The Andes have played a significant role in shaping the geography, climate, and culture of the countries in the region.

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

A prominent Mexican politician and military leader who served as president of Mexico multiple times during the 19th century. Santa Anna played a central role in the Mexican War of Independence, the Texas Revolution, and the Mexican-American War. He is known for his shifting alliances and dictatorial tendencies.

Aristocracy

A social class consisting of individuals who hold inherited or acquired noble titles and privileges. Aristocrats typically possess wealth, land, and political power, and their social status is determined by birth or affiliation with the ruling elite.

Atahualpa

The last Inca emperor of the Inca Empire, ruling from 1532 until his capture and execution by Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro. Atahualpa's capture marked a significant turning point in the Spanish conquest of the Inca civilization.

Bartolomé de las Casas

A Spanish Dominican friar, historian, and advocate for the rights of indigenous peoples during the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Las Casas documented the mistreatment and abuse of Native Americans by Spanish colonizers and became known as a defender of indigenous rights.

Caudillo

A military or political leader who exercises authoritarian power and often emerges as a strongman or dictator in Spanish-speaking countries. Caudillos typically rely on personal charisma, military force, and a centralized control of power to govern.

Columbian Exchange

The widespread exchange of plants, animals, diseases, ideas, and technologies between the Eastern and Western hemispheres following Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas in 1492. The Columbian Exchange had significant impacts on the ecological, economic, and cultural aspects of both the Old World and the New World.

Conquistador

A term used to describe the Spanish and Portuguese soldiers, explorers, and adventurers who participated in the exploration, conquest, and colonization of the Americas during the 15th to 17th centuries. Conquistadors sought wealth, land, and glory in the New World.