Psych Vocab ( Chaps 6,7,8)

acquisition

period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned

associative learning

form of learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment (classical and operant conditioning)

classical conditioning

learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior

cognitive map

mental picture of the layout of the environment

conditioned response (CR)

response caused by the conditioned stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

continuous reinforcement

rewarding a behavior every time it occurs

extinction

decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus

fixed interval reinforcement schedule

behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time

fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

set number of responses must occur before a behavior is rewarded

higher-order conditioning

(also, second-order conditioning) using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus

instinct

unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of behavior; instincts are thought to be more prevalent in lower animals than in humans

latent learning

learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it

law of effect

behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged

learning

change in behavior or knowledge that is the result of experience

model

person who performs a behavior that serves as an example (in observational learning)

negative punishment

taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior

negative reinforcement

taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior

neutral stimulus (NS)

stimulus that does not initially elicit a response

observational learning

type of learning that occurs by watching others

operant conditioning

form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated

partial reinforcement

rewarding behavior only some of the time

positive punishment

adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior

positive reinforcement

adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior

primary reinforcer

has innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water, shelter, sex)

punishment

implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behavior

radical behaviorism

staunch form of behaviorism developed by B. F. Skinner that suggested that even complex higher mental functions like human language are nothing more than stimulus-outcome associations

reflex

unlearned, automatic response by an organism to a stimulus in the environment

reinforcement

implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behavior

secondary reinforcer

has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips)

shaping

rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior

spontaneous recovery

return of a previously extinguished conditioned response

stimulus discrimination

ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

stimulus generalization

demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

unconditioned response (UCR)

natural (unlearned) behavior to a given stimulus

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that elicits a reflexive response

variable interval reinforcement schedule

behavior is rewarded after unpredictable amounts of time have passed

variable ratio reinforcement schedule

number of responses differ before a behavior is rewarded

vicarious punishment

process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior

vicarious reinforcement

process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior

intelligence quotient (IQ)

(also, IQ) score on a test designed to measure intelligence

Standardization

method of testing in which administration, scoring, and interpretation of results are consistent

Norming

administering a test to a large population so data can be collected to reference the normal scores for a population and its groups

Flynn effect

observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the previous generation

representative sample

subset of the population that accurately represents the general population

standard deviations

measure of variability that describes the difference between a set of scores and their mean

crystallized intelligence

characterized by acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it

fluid intelligence

ability to see complex relationships and solve problems

triarchic theory of intelligence

Sternberg's theory of intelligence; three facets of intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical

practical intelligence

aka "street smarts"

creative intelligence

ability to produce new products, ideas, or inventing a new, novel solution to a problem

analytical intelligence

aligned with academic problem solving and computations

multiple intelligence theory

Gardner's theory that each person possesses at least eight types of intelligence

emotional intelligence

ability to understand emotions and motivations in yourself and others

cultural intelligence

ability with which people can understand and relate to those in another culture

Creativity

ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities

divergent thinking

ability to think "outside the box" to arrive at novel solutions to a problem

convergent thinking

providing correct or established answers to problems

problem-solving strategy

method for solving problems

trial and error

problem-solving strategy in which multiple solutions are attempted until the correct one is found

Algorithm

problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions

working backwards

heuristic in which you begin to solve a problem by focusing on the end result

mental set

continually using an old solution to a problem without results

functional fixedness

inability to see an object as useful for any other use other than the one for which it was intended

anchoring bias

problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions

confirmation bias

faulty heuristic in which you focus on information that confirms your beliefs

hindsight bias

belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn't

representative bias

faulty heuristic in which you stereotype someone or something without a valid basis for your judgment

availabilty bias

faulty heuristic in which you make a decision based on information readily available to you

absentmindedness

lapses in memory that are caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else

acoustic encoding

input of sounds, words, and music

amnesia

loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma

anterograde amnesia

loss of memory for events that occur after the brain trauma

arousal theory

strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories

Atkinson-Shiffrin model

memory model that states we process information through three systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

automatic processing

encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words

bias

how feelings and view of the world distort memory of past events

blocking

memory error in which you cannot access stored information

chunking

organizing information into manageable bits or chunks

construction

formulation of new memories

declarative memory

type of long-term memory of facts and events we personally experience

effortful processing

encoding of information that takes effort and attention

elaborative rehearsal

thinking about the meaning of new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory

encoding

input of information into the memory system

engram

physical trace of memory

episodic memory

type of declarative memory that contains information about events we have personally experienced, also known as autobiographical memory

equipotentiality hypothesis

some parts of the brain can take over for damaged parts in forming and storing memories

explicit memory

memories we consciously try to remember and recall

false memory syndrome

recall of false autobiographical memories

flashbulb memory

exceptionally clear recollection of an important event

forgetting

loss of information from long-term memory

implicit memory

memories that are not part of our consciousness

levels of processing

information that is thought of more deeply becomes more meaningful and thus better committed to memory

long-term memory (LTM)

continuous storage of information

memory

set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time

memory-enhancing strategy

technique to help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-term memory

misattribution

memory error in which you confuse the source of your information

misinformation effect paradigm

after exposure to additional and possibly inaccurate information, a person may misremember the original event

mnemonic device

memory aids that help organize information for encoding

persistence

failure of the memory system that involves the involuntary recall of unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones