Sociology: The Real World Chapters 1-3 Vocabulary

counterculture

A group within society that openly rejects and/or actively opposes society's values and norms (page 83)

cultural diffusion

The dissemination of beliefs and practices from one group to another (page 88)

cultural imperialism

The imposition of one culture's beliefs and practices on another culture through mass media and consumer products rather than by military force (page 92)

cultural leveling

The process by which cultures that were once unique and distinct become increasingly similar (page 91)

cultural relativism

The principle of understanding other cultures on their own terms, rather than judging or evaluating according to one's own culture (page 74)

culture

The entire way of life of a group of people (including both material and symbolic elements) that acts as a lens through which one views the world and is passed from one generation to the next (page 72)

culture wars

Clashes within mainstream society over the values and norms that should be upheld (page 86)

dominant culture

The values, norms, and practices of the group within society that is most powerful (in terms of wealth, prestige, status, influence, etc.) (page 82)

ethnocentrism

The principle of using one's own culture as a means or standard by which to evaluate another group or individual, leading to the view that cultures other than one's own are abnormal or inferior (page 74)

folkway

A loosely enforced norm involving common customs, practices, or procedures that ensure smooth social interaction and acceptance (page 80)

gestures

The ways in which people use their bodies to communicate without words; actions that have symbolic meaning (page 78)

hegemony

Term developed by Antonio Gramsci to describe the cultural aspects of social control, whereby the ideas of the dominant social group are accepted by all of society (page 82)

ideal culture

The norms, values, and patterns of behavior that members of a society believe should be observed in principle (page 86)

language

A system of communication using vocal sounds, gestures, or written symbols; the basis of symbolic culture and the primary means through which we communicate with one another and perpetuate our culture (page 78)

law

A common type of formally defined norm providing an explicit statement about what is permissible and what is illegal in a given society (page 79)

material culture

The objects associated with a cultural group, such as tools, machines, utensils, buildings, and artwork; any physical object to which we give social meaning (page 76)

more

A norm that carries great moral significance, is closely related to the core values of a cultural group, and often involves severe repercussions for violators (page 80)

multiculturalism

A policy that values diverse racial, ethnic, national, and linguistic backgrounds and so encourages the retention of cultural differences within society rather than assimilation (page 82)

norm

A rule or guideline regarding what kinds of behavior are acceptable and appropriate within a culture (page 79)

real culture

The norms, values, and patterns of behavior that actually exist within a society (which may or may not correspond to the society's ideals) (page 86)

sanction

Positive or negative reactions to the ways that people follow or disobey norms, including rewards for conformity and punishments for violations (page 80)

Sapir

Whorf hypothesis - The idea that language structures thought and that ways of looking at the world are embedded in language (page 78)

sign

A symbol that stands for or conveys an idea (page 77)

social control

The formal and informal mechanisms used to elicit conformity to values and norms and thus increase social cohesion (page 80)

subculture

A group within society that is differentiated by its distinctive values, norms, and lifestyle (page 82)

symbolic culture

The ideas associated with a cultural group, including ways of thinking (beliefs, values, and assumptions) and ways of behaving (norms, interactions, and communication) (page 77)

taboo

A norm ingrained so deeply that even thinking about violating it evokes strong feelings of disgust, horror, or revulsion (page 80)

technological determinism

The notion that developments in technology provide the primary driving force behind social change (page 88)

technology

Material artifacts and the knowledge and techniques required to use them (page 87)

values

Ideas about what is desirable or contemptible and right or wrong in a particular group. They articulate the essence of everything that a cultural group cherishes and honors. (page 79)

access

The process by which an ethnographer gains entry to a field setting (page 46)

applied research

Research designed to gather knowledge that can be used learned to create some sort of change (page 59)

basic research

The search for knowledge without any agenda or desire to use that knowledge to effect change (page 59)

bias

An opinion held by the researcher that might affect the research or analysis (page 48)

causation

A relationship between variables in which a change in one directly produces a change in the other (page 41)

closed

ended question - A question asked of a respondent that imposes a limit on the possible responses (page 50)

code of ethics

Ethical guidelines for researchers to consult as they design a project (page 61)

comparative and historical methods

Methods that use existing sources to study relationships between elements of society in various regions and time periods (page 54)

confidentiality

The assurance that no one other than the researcher will know the identity of a respondent (page 52)

content analysis

A method in which researchers identify and study specific variables—such as words—in a text, image, or media message (page 54)

control

In an experiment, the process of regulating all factors except for the independent variable (page 56)

control group

The part of a test group that is allowed to continue without intervention so that it can be compared with the experimental group (page 56)

correlation

A relationship between variables in which they change together; may or may not be causal (page 41)

deception

The extent to which the participants in a research project are unaware of the project or its goals (page 61)

dependent variable

Factor that is changed (or not) by the independent variable (page 56)

double

barreled questions - Questions that attempt to get at multiple issues at once, and so tend to receive incomplete or confusing answers (page 50)

ethnography

A naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities; also the written work that results from the study (page 44)

existing sources

Materials that have been produced for some other reason, but that can be used as data for social research (page 53)

experimental group

The part of a test group that receives the experimental treatment (page 56)

experiments

Formal tests of specific variables and effects, performed in a controlled setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled (page 56)

fieldnotes

Detailed notes taken by an ethnographer describing her activities and interactions, which later become the basis of the ethnographic analysis (page 47)

grounded theory

An inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and then looking for relationships between categories (page 48)

Hawthorne effect

A specific example of reactivity, in which the desired effect is the result not of the independent variable but of the research itself (page 59)

hypothesis

A theoretical statement explaining the relationship between two or more phenomena (page 41)

independent variable

Factor that is predicted to cause change (page 56)

informed consent

A safeguard through which the researcher makes sure that respondents are freely participating and understand the nature of the research (page 49)

institutional review board

A group of scholars within a university who meet regularly to review and approve the research proposals of their colleagues and make recommendations for how to protect human subjects (page 61)

intervening variable

A third variable, sometimes overlooked, that explains the relationship between two other variables (page 41)

interviews

Face-to-face, informationseeking conversation, sometimes defined as a conversation with a purpose (page 49)

leading questions

Questions that predispose a respondent to answer in a certain way (page 50)

Likert scale

A way of organizing categories on a survey question so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum (page 51)

literature review

A thorough search through previously published studies relevant to a particular topic (page 41)

negative questions

Survey questions that ask respondents what they don't think instead of what they do (page 51)

objectivity

Impartiality, the ability to allow the facts to speak for themselves (page 59)

open

ended question - A question asked of a respondent that allows the answer to take whatever form the respondent chooses (page 50)

operational definition

A clear and precise definition of a variable that facilitates its measurement (page 41)

paradigm shift

The term used to describe a change in basic assumptions of a particular scientific discipline (page 42)

participant observation

A methodology associated with ethnography whereby the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting (page 46)

pilot study

A small study carried out to test the feasibility of a larger on (page 53)

probability sampling

Any sampling scheme in which any given unit has the same probability of being chosen (page 52)

qualitative research

Research that works with nonnumerical data such as texts, fieldnotes, interview transcripts, photographs, and tape recordings; this type of research more often tries to understand how people make sense of their world (page 40)

quantitative research

Research that translates the social world into numbers that can be treated mathematically; this type of research often tries to find cause-and-effect relationships (page 40)

rapport

A positive relationship often characterized by mutual trust or sympathy (page 46)

reactivity

The tendency of people and events to react to the process of being studied (page 59)

reflexivity

How the identity and activities of the researcher influence what is going on in the field setting (page 48)

reliability

The consistency of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which the same questions will produce similar answers (page 52)

replicability

Research that can be repeated, and thus verified, by other researchers later (page 48)

representative sample

A sample taken so that findings from members of the sample group can be generalized to the whole population (page 52)

representativeness

The degree to which a particular studied group is similar to, or represents, any part of the larger society (page 48)

respondent

Someone from whom a researcher solicits information (page 49)

response rate

The number or percentage of surveys completed by respondents and returned to researchers (page 52)

sample

The part of the population that will actually be studied (page 49)

scientific method

A procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting concrete data through observation and experiment (page 40)

simple random sample

A particular type of probability sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected (page 52)

spurious correlation

The appearance of causation produced by an intervening variable (page 42)

survey

A method based on questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population (page 51)

target population

The entire group about which a researcher would like to be able to generalize (page 49)

validity

The accuracy of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which a researcher is measuring what he thinks he is measuring (page 52)

value

free sociology - An ideal whereby researchers identify facts without allowing their own personal beliefs or biases to interfere (page 59)

variables

One of two or more phenomena that a researcher believes are related and hopes to prove are related through research (page 41)

weighting

Techniques for manipulating the sampling procedure so that the sample more closely resembles the larger population (page 52)

alienation

The sense of dissatisfaction the modern worker feels as a result of producing goods that are owned and controlled by someone else, according to Marx (page 23)

anomie

"Normlessness"; term used to describe the alienation and loss of purpose that result from weaker social bonds and an increased pace of change (page 20)

antithesis

The opposition to the existing arrangements in a dialectical model (page 24)

beginner's mind

Approaching the world without preconceptions in order to see things in a new way (page 11)

bourgeoisie

Owners; the class of modern capitalists who own the means of production and employ wage laborers (page 23)

bureaucracies

Secondary groups designed to perform tasks efficiently, characterized by specialization, technical competence, hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, and formal written communication (page 25)

capitalism

An economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and characterized by competition, the profit motive, and wage labor (page 22)

class consciousness

The recognition of social inequality on the part of the oppressed, leading to revolutionary action (page 23)

collective conscience

The shared morals and beliefs that are common to a group and which foster social solidarity (page 20)