Geog Exam 2

Storms

Temporary and limited compared to broad scale pressure

Thunderstorms

Associated with midlatitude and tropical cyclones, localized convection, and orographic lifting

Thunderstorm formation requires...

Warm + moist air, unstable or conditionally unstable conditions, and diverging air aloft

Vertical sheer

as storm build up, the sheer happens when surface winds slow down from friction

3 stages of a thunderstorm are...

cumulus, mature, dissipating

hail

produced in cumulonimbus from turbulence & vertical sheer

lightening

discharge of electricity due to charge of separation in these storm clouds

electrical potential

The potential energy per unit of electric charge

Equalization

Small scale storm

easterly wave

A long but weak migratory low-pressure trough in the tropics.

Paleoclimatology

how we study ancient climates

What do we use for Paleoclimatology?

Proxy measures correlated with different climate variables

arctic amplification

the enhancement of near-surface air temperature change of the arctic relative to lower latitudes

positive feedback mechanism

increased temperature results in less sea ice, reducing albedo, facilitating more near surface warming.

residence time

The average time a water particle will stay in a given reservoir

Permafrost

any earth material that is frozen for 2 or more years straight

Marshes

A body of water with water-tolerant plants, primarily grasses and sedges

swamps

similar to marshes but are dominated by trees

streams and rivers

flow towards and ocean or large lake

types of surface waters

lakes, marshes, swamps, streams + rivers

ground water

underground water that is held in the soil and porous rocks

infiltration capacity

the maximum rate at which soil can absorb water

soil texture

size of soil particles

finest soil texture?

clay

largest soil texture?

gravel

types of soil water

gravity, capillary, hygroscopic

hydroscopic water

bound to the surface of soil particles by molecular forces. Cannot be evaporated, used by plants, or removed by natural processed.

capillary water

continuous layer around particles. Most available to plant use.

gravity water

flows through the soil. typical for house plants.

Field (Storage) Capacity

how much water soil can hold onto

what is field and infiltration capacity dependent on?

the texture of the soil

Capillarity

the ability of a substance to draw another substance into it.

Capillarity occurs when adhesive forces are stronger than \___??

cohesive forces

Aquifers

porous rock saturated with groundwater

Aquiludes

layers of impermeable rocks

saturated zone

where all pores are filled with water

Biogeography

Study of past and present distribution of organisms

Geomorphology

mix of physical geography and geology

Lithosphere

rigid outer layer part of the earth (crust and upper mantle)

crust

outer most solid layer

mantle

beneath the crust surrounding the outer core

outer core

liquid shell beneath the mantle

inner core

the innermost layer of the earth (most dense and solid)

Rocks

any naturally occurring masses

minerals

building blocks of rocks

what must minerals have?

have specific chemical composition, and ordered (crystalline) atomic arrangement, inorganic, and solid

bedrock

residual rock that has not experienced weathering

igneous rock

rocks from molten magma

Extrusive rock

molten rock ejected onto earth that solidify in open air

intrusive rock

rocks that cool and solidify beneath earth's surface

sedimentary rock

when rock is broken down by natural weathering

what are cementing agents?

silica, calcium carbonate, and iron oxide.

Sandstone

compacted sand grains

Shale

compacted silt and clay particles

limestone

chemically or organically procured calcium carbonate

what are the types of sedimentary rocks?

sandstone, shale, and limestone

metamorphic rock

formed from existing rocks that have changed by heat or pressure within the earth

what are the crust types?

Continental and ocean

continental crust

thicker and less dense than ocean

ocean crust

thinner and more dense than continental

continental shelves

flooded areas on continental crust

isostatic equilibrium

exists between parts of the earth's crust

Divergence

seafloor spreading

Orogenies

mountain building events at convergent plate margins

diastrophism

general term. for two types of crustal deformation

two types of crustal deformation (diastrophism)?

folding and faulting

What are the characteristics of faulting diastrophism?

normal, reverse faults, thrust falts, and strike-slope faults.

earthquakes

vibrations or seismic waves produced by shock waves from sudden crustal displacement along a fault

How is the magnitude of an earthquake measured?

Using the Richter Scale

Volcanoes

landforms built by emission of lava and gases from a constricted vent in the earth's surface

What are volcanoes largely associated with?

plate boundaries

magma chambers

huge subterranean reservoirs of molten rock

what are vents?

main conduits through which magma moves toward the surface

Where are craters?

at the top of volcanoes where much of the lava, gas, etc are ejected

what is lava the word for?

... magma on the surface

What is tephra?

..the term for fragments ejected from volcano

Basalt flows

often thin and fluid, which facilitates long flow distances

shield volcano

a wide, gently sloping mountain made of layers of lava and formed by quiet eruptions

composite volcano

A tall, cone-shaped mountain in which layers of lava alternate with layers of ash and other volcanic materials

What are plate boundaries?

the edges of tectonic plates.

What are hot spots?

plumes of deep mantle material independent of plates

3 Controls on Weathering

rock type, structure, and climate

crystalline structure

regular geometric pattern of particles in most solids, giving a solid a definite shape and volume

Fall (erosion)

free fall, bouncing, and rolling of rocks over steep weathering cliffs

Slide (erosion)

when rocks or debris slide down a pre-existing surface such as a bedding plane or joint surface

Slump (Erosion)

type of slide where downward rotation of rock, regolith, or soil occurs along a curved surface.

flow (erosion)

downslope movements of soil/vegetation saturated with water.

Creep erosion

movement of material on slopes due to the expansion of contraction of surface sediment and the pull of gravity

What are the primary factors that produce creep on slopes?

Freeze-thaw cycling and wet-dry cycling

Weathering

the physical + chemical breakdown of rock

Erosion

weathering AND transportation

What are the 3 types of rock weathering?

Physical, chemical, and biological

Physical weathering

the mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals

thermal expansion and contraction

volume changes in response to heating and cooling

frost wedging

freezing and thawing of water in cracks

Exfoliation

when rock expands and crack as pressure is reduced due to removal of overlaying material

what are buried rocks slightly contracted under?

under pressure

when do rocks expand?

when erosion or tectonics decreases pressure

where do pressure release fractures form?

parallel to the surface