micro final

what is catabolism

is the set of metabolic processes that break down larger molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the process. This process involves the breakdown of complex molecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into simpler molecules such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids, respectively. The energy released during catabolism is used to fuel anabolic processes, which build larger molecules from smaller ones.

what is anabolism

is the set of metabolic pathways that build complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy in the process. It is the opposite of catabolism, which breaks down complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy.

what are microorganisms?

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also known as microbes, are tiny living organisms that are too small to be seen with the naked eye. They include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and algae. Microorganisms play important roles in various ecosystems, including the human body, and can have both positive and negative effects on human health.

what is a pure culture?

is a population of microorganisms that only contains one species or strain. It is obtained by isolating a single microbe from a mixed culture and growing it in a nutrient-rich medium under controlled conditions. Pure cultures are important in microbiology for studying the characteristics and behavior of individual microorganisms.

example- A microbiologist is studying a specific type of bacteria and wants to ensure that all the bacteria in their sample are genetically identical. To do this, they isolate a single bacterial cell and grow it in a nutrient-rich environment. After several rounds of growth, the microbiologist has a population of bacteria that are all genetically identical and free from any other microbial contamination. This is an example of a pure culture.

what is photosynthesis?

is the process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods with the help of chlorophyll, carbon dioxide, and water. The process releases oxygen as a byproduct and is essential for the survival of most life forms on Earth.

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods with the help of chlorophyll, carbon dioxide, and water. Microbes, such as certain types of bacteria and algae, are also capable of performing photosynthesis. They use pigments other than chlorophyll to capture sunlight and convert it into energy.

what are pathogens

are microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites that can cause disease in humans, animals, and plants. They can be transmitted through various means such as air, water, food, and bodily fluids.

example explains = Some microorganisms can cause harm to living organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. They can cause diseases in plants, animals, and humans. For instance, a certain type of bacteria can cause strep throat, while another can cause tuberculosis. These harmful microorganisms are known as ***pathogens***.

what effect does microbial photosynthesis have on planets atmosphere

can have a significant impact on a planet's atmosphere by producing oxygen and reducing levels of carbon dioxide. This process can contribute to the formation of an oxygen-rich atmosphere, which is essential for supporting complex life forms. Additionally, microbial photosynthesis can also play a role in regulating the planet's climate by influencing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

explain a gram stain

is a laboratory technique used to differentiate bacterial species into two groups based on the characteristics of their cell walls. The process involves applying a crystal violet stain, followed by a iodine solution, an alcohol wash, and a counterstain of safranin. Gram-positive bacteria retain the crystal violet stain and appear purple under a microscope, while gram-negative bacteria lose the stain and appear pink or red. This staining technique is widely used in microbiology to identify and classify bacterial species.

explain a acidfast stain

is a laboratory technique used to identify bacteria that have a waxy cell wall, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacterium that causes tuberculosis. The stain involves using a solution of carbol fuchsin, which is a red dye that penetrates the waxy cell wall of the bacteria. The slide is then heated to help the dye penetrate further into the cell wall. The slide is then washed with an acid-alcohol solution, which removes the dye from all bacteria except those with a waxy cell wall. These bacteria will retain the red color and are referred to as "acid-fast." The slide is then counterstained with a blue dye, which stains all other bacteria blue. The acid-fast bacteria will appear red against a blue background.

explain the five I’s

refer to the five basic techniques used in microbiology to isolate and identify microorganisms. They are:


1. Inoculation: The process of introducing a small sample of microorganisms into a growth medium.
2. Incubation: The process of providing optimal conditions for the growth of microorganisms, such as temperature, humidity, and pH.
3. Isolation: The process of separating individual microorganisms from a mixed culture to obtain a pure culture.
4. Inspection: The process of observing and examining the characteristics of microorganisms, such as their morphology, staining properties, and biochemical reactions.
5. Identification: The process of determining the type of microorganism present, usually through a combination of physical, chemical, and genetic tests.

what is taxonomy

is the scientific study of naming, describing, and classifying organisms based on their characteristics and evolutionary relationships. It involves identifying and grouping organisms into categories based on their similarities and differences.

For example, the classification of humans is as follows:

* Kingdom: Animalia (animals)
* Phylum: Chordata (vertebrates)
* Class: Mammalia (mammals)
* Order: Primates (primates)
* Family: Hominidae (great apes)
* Genus: Homo (humans)
* Species: Homo sapiens (modern humans)

Taxonomy helps scientists to organize and understand the diversity of life on Earth, and to identify relationships between different organisms.

what are endospores and what are their purpose

are highly resistant, dormant structures formed by some bacteria as a survival mechanism under unfavorable environmental conditions. Their purpose is to protect the bacterial DNA and other essential components from damage until conditions become favorable again. Endospores can remain dormant for long periods of time and can resist extreme temperatures, radiation, and chemicals.

what is a covalent bond

A ---- bond is a type of chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. This type of bond is formed between two non-metal atoms, where the atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons in order to achieve a stable electron configuration. Covalent bonds are typically stronger than other types of bonds, such as ionic bonds, and are responsible for the formation of molecules and compounds in many biological and chemical systems.

what is a ionic bond

An --- bond is a type of chemical bond that involves the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, resulting in the formation of ions with opposite charges that are held together by electrostatic attraction. This type of bond typically occurs between a metal and a nonmetal.

what is a hydrogen bond

A---- bond is a type of weak chemical bond that occurs between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom, such as oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine. It is responsible for many of the unique properties of water and is important in many biological processes.

organic molecules

are molecules that contain carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms. carbon hydrogen backbone. They are the building blocks of life and are essential to all living organisms. Organic molecules include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These molecules are involved in a wide range of biological processes, such as energy production, cell signaling, and DNA replication.

what is the role that water plays for living organisms

plays a crucial role for living organisms as it is essential for various biological processes such as the transportation of nutrients, removal of waste, regulation of body temperature, and maintenance of cell structure. It also serves as a medium for chemical reactions and helps in the production of energy through cellular respiration.

explain PH

is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It stands for "potential of hydrogen" and is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution. A pH of 7 is considered neutral, while values below 7 are acidic and values above 7 are basic. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 0 being the most acidic and 14 being the most basic. pH is an important concept in chemistry, biology, and environmental science, as it affects many chemical and biological processes.

ph increase concentration will decrease

what are eukaryotes

are organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within a membrane, as well as other membrane-bound organelles. They are one of the three domains of life, the other two being Archaea and Bacteria. Examples of eukaryotes include animals, plants, fungi, and protists.

what are prokaryotes

re unicellular organisms that lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. They are typically smaller and simpler in structure than eukaryotic cells. Examples of prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea.

what are protists

are a diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms that are not plants, animals, or fungi. They can be unicellular or multicellular and can be found in various aquatic and terrestrial environments. Some protists are photosynthetic, while others are heterotrophic, and some can even switch between the two modes of nutrition.

what are organelles

are specialized structures within a cell that perform specific functions. They are found in eukaryotic cells, which include cells from plants, animals, fungi, and protists. Examples of organelles include the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and chloroplasts (in plant cells).

prokaryotes do not have organelles.

do viruses lack organelles

Yes or no--- lack organelles. They are not considered living organisms as they cannot carry out metabolic processes on their own and require a host cell to replicate. t

do viruses have ribosomes

yes or no ------ do not have ribosomes. They lack the cellular machinery required for protein synthesis and instead rely on host cells to replicate and produce proteins for them.

Ribosomes are cellular structures that synthesize proteins by decoding the information present in the messenger RNA (mRNA). They are found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

To answer your first question, viruses do not have ribosomes. They are not considered living organisms and rely on host cells to carry out protein synthesis.

what is the mitochondria

are organelles found in most eukaryotic cells that are responsible for producing energy in the form of ATP through cellular respiration. They are often referred to as the "powerhouses" of the cell.

what is the endoplasmic reticulum

is a network of flattened sacs and branching tubules that extends throughout the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells. It plays a key role in protein and lipid synthesis, calcium storage, and detoxification of drugs and toxins.

translation

what is a trophozoite

is an active and motile form of a microorganism that feeds and reproduces. It is the vegetative form of the organism that is responsible for causing disease.

what is a cyst

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is a dormant and resistant form of a microorganism that can survive in harsh environmental conditions. It is a protective capsule that encloses the organism and helps it to survive in unfavorable conditions.

are viruses alive?

not alive - because they lack the characteristics of living organisms, such as the ability to reproduce on their own, maintain homeostasis, and carry out metabolic processes. They are essentially just genetic material (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat, and they require a host cell to replicate. Therefore, they are considered to be non-living infectious agents.

what are the major parts of viruses

Viruses typically have two main components: a genetic material (either DNA or RNA) and a protein coat called a capsid. Some viruses may also have an outer envelope made of lipids.

what is a bacteriophage

is a type of virus that infects and replicates within bacteria.

what is a term for virus that causes cancer

is an oncovirus.

what is a saprobe

is an organism, typically a fungus or bacterium, that obtains nutrients from decaying organic matter.

what is a halophile

is an organism that thrives in high salt concentrations.

HALO- SALT

what is a thermophile

is an organism that thrives in high temperature environments

what is symbiosis and list the three relationships

is a close and long-term interaction between two different biological species, where at least one of the species benefits from the relationship.

mutualistic- where both species benefit

commensalism- where one species benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed, unaffected

parasitic- where one species benefits at the expense of the other.

what is aerobic respiration

is the process by which cells convert nutrients into energy in the presence of oxygen.

It involves the breakdown of glucose molecules into carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy that is stored in the form of ATP molecules.

This process occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and is essential for the survival of most organisms.

what is fermentation

is a metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases, or alcohol. It occurs in the absence of oxygen and is used by microorganisms like yeast and bacteria to produce energy.

what is a strict aerobe

is an organism that requires oxygen to survive and grow and cannot grow in the absence of oxygen.

what is a facultative anaerobe

is an organism that can survive in both aerobic and anaerobic environments, but can switch between using oxygen and not using oxygen for energy production.

what is an obligate anaerobe

is an organism that requires an oxygen-free environment to grow and survive. These organisms are unable to use oxygen for respiration and may even be harmed by its presence. They obtain energy through fermentation or anaerobic respiration.

Examples of obligate anaerobes include Clostridium tetani, which causes tetanus, and Bacteroides fragilis, which can cause infections in the abdomen.

what phase generates the most atp

the electron transport chain

explain dna

stands for deoxyribonucleic acid, which is a molecule that carries genetic information in all living organisms. It is composed of four nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine), a sugar molecule, and a phosphate group.

The sequence of these bases determines the genetic code that is responsible for the traits and characteristics of an organism.

DNA is located in the nucleus of a cell and is replicated during cell division to ensure that each new cell has a complete set of genetic information.

explain rna

stands for Ribonucleic Acid. It is a type of nucleic acid that is essential for the synthesis of proteins in cells. RNA is made up of nucleotides, just like DNA, but it has a different sugar molecule and a different nitrogenous base. RNA is involved in the process of transcription, where the genetic information stored in DNA is copied into RNA. There are three main types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). mRNA carries the genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes, where it is used to synthesize proteins. tRNA helps to decode the genetic information in mRNA and bring the correct amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis. rRNA is a component of the ribosome, which is the molecular machine that synthesizes proteins.

basic concept of how dna codes for something

DNA codes for something through the sequence of its nucleotides. The sequence of nucleotides in DNA determines the sequence of amino acids in a protein, which ultimately determines the structure and function of the protein.

This process is known as the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that DNA is transcribed into RNA, and RNA is translated into protein. The specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA is read by enzymes and proteins that carry out these processes.

what are the different ways that a code reading can get messed up by mutations

Mutations can cause errors in the genetic code, leading to changes in the amino acid sequence of a protein. Some ways that a code reading can get messed up by mutations include substitutions, insertions, and deletions. Substitutions occur when one nucleotide is replaced by another, while insertions and deletions involve the addition or removal of one or more nucleotides. These changes can alter the reading frame of the genetic code, resulting in a completely different protein being produced. Additionally, mutations can also affect regulatory regions of DNA, leading to changes in gene expression.

missense mutation

mutation is a type of genetic mutation where a single nucleotide change in DNA results in a codon that codes for a different amino acid in the protein sequence.

This can lead to a change in the protein's structure and function, which can have varying effects on an organism's phenotype.

nonsense mutation

mutation is a type of genetic mutation that results in a premature stop codwhton in the DNA sequence, leading to a truncated and usually nonfunctional protein.

silent mutation

is a type of genetic mutation that occurs when a change in the DNA sequence of a gene does not result in a change in the amino acid sequence of the protein that is encoded by that gene. This is because the genetic code is redundant, meaning that multiple codons can code for the same amino acid. Therefore, a change in the third nucleotide of a codon may not affect the amino acid that is produced. Silent mutations are generally considered to be neutral mutations, as they do not affect the function of the protein.

what are restriction endonuclease

are enzymes that cut DNA molecules at specific recognition sites. They are commonly used in molecular biology to create recombinant DNA molecules by cutting and pasting DNA fragments together. These enzymes are named after the bacteria from which they were originally isolated and are used in a variety of applications, including DNA fingerprinting, gene cloning, and genetic engineering.

what is pcr and what are the steps

is a laboratory technique used to amplify a specific DNA sequence. The steps involved in PCR are:


1. Denaturation: The double-stranded DNA is heated to a high temperature (around 95°C) to separate the two strands.
2. Annealing: The temperature is lowered to allow the primers to bind to the complementary sequences on each strand of the DNA.
3. Extension: The temperature is raised again and Taq polymerase (a heat-stable enzyme) adds nucleotides to the 3' end of the primers, extending the DNA sequence.

These three steps are repeated for 20-40 cycles, resulting in an exponential increase in the number of copies of the target DNA sequence.

what vectors could be used to intoduce recombinant dna into hosts

There are several vectors that can be used to introduce recombinant DNA into hosts, including plasmids, bacteriophages, cosmids, artificial chromosomes, and viral vectors.

what is a biome

is a large geographical area characterized by its distinctive climate, vegetation, and wildlife. It is a complex community of plants and animals that have adapted to their specific environment. Examples of biomes include deserts, rainforests, tundras, and grasslands.

food chain hierarchy

A food chain hierarchy is a sequence of organisms in which each organism feeds on the one below it in the chain.

The hierarchy typically starts with **primary producers**, such as plants.

which are then consumed by **primary consumers**, such as herbivores.

The primary consumers are then eaten by **secondary consumers,** which are often carnivores.

The chain can continue with **tertiary consumers**,

**quaternary consumers**, and so on, with each level consuming the level below it.

At each level, energy is lost as heat, so the number of organisms at each level decreases. The top of the food chain is often occupied by apex predators, which have no natural predators of their own.

potable water is what

is water that is safe for human consumption, meaning it is free from harmful contaminants and meets the standards set by regulatory agencies.

pathogen free

sterilization

is the process of eliminating all forms of microbial life, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi, from an object or environment.

This is typically achieved through the use of physical or chemical agents such as heat, radiation, or chemicals. Sterilization is commonly used in medical settings to prevent the spread of infections and diseases.

what is decontamination

is the process of removing or neutralizing contaminants, such as hazardous materials, chemicals, or radioactive substances, from surfaces, objects, or people to make them safe for handling or use. not completely free of microbes

what is asepsis

refers to the state of being free from disease-causing microorganisms. It is a set of practices and procedures aimed at preventing the spread of infection and maintaining a sterile environment in medical settings.

how do we acheieve sterilization

can be achieved through various methods such as heat, radiation, chemicals, and filtration. The specific method used depends on the type of material being sterilized and the intended use. For example, heat can be used to sterilize surgical instruments, while chemicals like ethylene oxide can be used to sterilize medical equipment that cannot withstand high temperatures.

autoclave

what is pasteurization

is a process of heating a liquid (such as milk) to a specific temperature for a certain amount of time in order to kill harmful bacteria and pathogens. This process was named after Louis Pasteur, a French microbiologist who developed the technique in the 1860s.

milk is not sterile

what is selective toxicity

is the ability of a substance to selectively target and kill a specific type of cell or organism while leaving other cells or organisms unharmed. This is often used in medicine to develop drugs that target specific pathogens or cancer cells while minimizing harm to healthy cells.

max against pathogen with minimal damage to host

what are antibiotics used to treat

are used to treat bacterial infections such as strep throat, urinary tract infections, and pneumonia. They are not effective against viral infections such as the common cold or flu.

how does penicillin control pathogens

controls pathogens by inhibiting the formation of the bacterial cell wall, leading to the death of the bacteria.

It does this by binding to and inhibiting the enzyme responsible for cross-linking the peptidoglycan chains in the cell wall, weakening the structure and making it more susceptible to osmotic pressure.

\-azole

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is a class of antifungal drugs that inhibit the synthesis of ergosterol, a component of fungal cell membranes, leading to the disruption of fungal cell growth and replication.

kirby bauer assay

, also known as the disk diffusion method,It is primarily used to determine the susceptibility of bacteria to various antibiotics. This method is based on the principle that different antibiotics have different effects on bacterial growth. In this method, paper disks containing different antibiotics are placed on a culture of bacteria. The antibiotics diffuse into the agar medium, and the zone of inhibition (area where bacteria growth is inhibited) is measured to determine the effectiveness of the antibiotic against the bacteria.

The results of this assay help clinicians to choose the most appropriate antibiotic for treating bacterial infections. This method is particularly useful in cases where the identity of the infecting organism is known, and the clinician needs to determine the most effective antibiotic for treatment.

The Kirby-Bauer assay has several advantages over other methods for determining antibiotic susceptibility. It is easy to perform, and the results are easy to interpret.

In conclusion, the Kirby-Bauer assay is a widely used laboratory technique in clinical microbiology. It is a simple and cost-effective method for determining antibiotic susceptibility. This method has several advantages over other methods, but it also has some limitations. Despite its limitations, the Kirby-Bauer assay remains an important tool in guiding antibiotic therapy.

where does our normal biota come from

also known as microbiota or microbiome, comes from various sources including the mother during birth, breast milk, food, and the environment.

what types of organisms might be apart of the normal human biota

includes a variety of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoa. Some common examples include Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus mutans, Candida albicans, and Escherichia coli.

what is the purpose of the immune system

is to protect the body from harmful pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi, as well as abnormal cells like cancer cells. It does this by recognizing and attacking foreign substances that enter the body.

do fevers do anything helpful

yes---- can be helpful as they are a sign that the body is fighting off an infection. The increase in body temperature can help to kill off viruses and bacteria that are causing the infection.

what is an endotoxin

is a type of toxin that is found in the outer membrane of certain gram-negative bacteria. It is released when the bacteria die and can cause fever, inflammation, and other symptoms in humans and animals.

what is signs vs symptoms

**see or measure-** are objective indications of a medical condition that can be observed or measured by a healthcare provider, such as a rash, fever, or abnormal laboratory test results.

**reported -** , on the other hand, are subjective experiences reported by the patient, such as pain, fatigue, or nausea.

what does complement do

is a group of proteins that work together to enhance the immune response against pathogens. In microbiology, complement is a part of the innate immune system that can directly kill bacteria and other microorganisms by forming pores in their cell membranes.

function of b cells

are a type of white blood cell that play a crucial role in the immune system. Their main function is to produce antibodies, which are proteins that can recognize and bind to specific foreign substances, such as bacteria or viruses. When a B cell encounters a foreign substance, it will produce antibodies that can neutralize or destroy the invader.

function of t cell s

are a type of white blood cell that play a crucial role in the immune system. They are responsible for recognizing and attacking foreign invaders such as viruses, bacteria, and cancer cells. T cells also help to regulate the immune response by releasing cytokines that activate or suppress other immune cells. Additionally, T cells can remember past infections and provide long-term immunity against future infections.

functions of antibody

also known as immunoglobulins, have several functions in the immune system. They can neutralize pathogens by binding to them and preventing them from infecting cells. Antibodies can also activate complement, a group of proteins that can destroy pathogens directly or mark them for destruction by other immune cells.

Additionally, antibodies can facilitate phagocytosis, the process by which immune cells engulf and destroy pathogens. Finally, antibodies can also activate other immune cells, such as T cells, to help fight infections.

what is atopy

is a genetic predisposition to develop allergic reactions to common environmental allergens such as pollen, dust mites, and animal dander. It is a type of hypersensitivity reaction that can lead to conditions such as asthma, eczema, and allergic rhinitis.

what is systemic anaphylaxis

is a severe and potentially life-threatening allergic reaction that affects the entire body. It is caused by the release of large amounts of histamine and other chemicals in response to an allergen, such as food, medication, or insect venom. Symptoms can include difficulty breathing, swelling of the face and throat, rapid heartbeat, and low blood pressure. Immediate medical attention is necessary to treat systemic anaphylaxis.

universal donor

blood type is O negative.

what happens if you are given the wrong abo blood

If you are given the wrong ABO blood, your immune system will recognize the foreign blood cells as invaders and attack them. This can cause a potentially life-threatening reaction called a transfusion reaction, which can lead to symptoms such as fever, chills, low blood pressure, and kidney failure. In severe cases, it can even be fatal.

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sensitivity

in microbiology refers to the ability of a test to correctly identify the presence of a microorganism in a sample.

High sensitivity means that the test is able to detect even small amounts of the microbe, while low sensitivity means that the test may miss some positive cases.

biota of skin

refers to the diverse community of microorganisms that inhabit the surface of human skin.

These microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, viruses, and mites, and they play important roles in maintaining skin health and preventing infection.

The composition of the skin biota can vary depending on factors such as age, gender, and environmental exposure.

biota of eye

refers to the microorganisms that inhabit the surface of the eye, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses.

These microorganisms are part of the normal flora of the eye and play a role in maintaining its health.

However, certain species of microorganisms can cause infections and lead to eye diseases such as conjunctivitis and keratitis. Proper hygiene and regular eye exams can help prevent and detect these conditions.

impetigo

The etiological agents of ------are mainly Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes bacteria.

bacterial skin infection

The symptoms of impetigo include red sores that quickly rupture, ooze, and develop a yellow-brown crust.

The sores may be itchy and can occur anywhere on the body, but are most commonly found around the nose and mouth. In severe cases, the lymph nodes may become swollen.

what is the etiological agent of scarlet fever

The etiological agent of---- is the bacterium Streptococcus pyogenes.

T Symptoms of scarlet fever include a sore throat, fever, a bright red rash on the body, and a "strawberry" tongue.

what is the etiologicla agent and symoptoms. of small pox

**Etiological Agent and Symptoms of**

is caused by the variola virus, which is a highly contagious and deadly virus.

The symptoms of smallpox include fever, headache, muscle aches, and a rash that starts on the face and spreads to the rest of the body.

The rash progresses from macules to papules to vesicles and then to pustules, which eventually scab over and fall off, leaving scars.

Smallpox has been eradicated worldwide through vaccination efforts.

what is the etiological agnet and symptoms of measles

**Etiological Agent and Symptoms of**

is caused by the measles virus, which is a highly contagious virus that spreads through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes.

The symptoms of measles include fever, cough, runny nose, red eyes, and a rash that spreads all over the body. Other symptoms may include diarrhea, ear infection, and pneumonia.

It is important to get vaccinated against measles to prevent the spread of the virus.

what is the etiological agent and symptoms of ring worm

**The etiological agent of** is a group of fungi called dermatophytes.

**Symptoms of** nclude a circular or ring-shaped rash on the skin, redness, itching, and scaling. In some cases, the rash may blister or ooze. Ringworm can also affect the nails and scalp, causing hair loss and nail deformities.

what is the chicken pox etiological agent and symtoms

**Etiological Agent and Symptoms of**

The etiological agent of is the varicella-zoster virus which is a highly contagious virus that spreads through direct contact with an infected person.

The symptoms of chickenpox include a blister-like rash, itching, fever, fatigue, and loss of appetite.

The rash usually starts on the face, chest, and back, and then spreads to the rest of the body. The blisters eventually break and form scabs, which can take several days to heal. In severe cases, chickenpox can lead to complications such as bacterial infections, pneumonia, and encephalitis.

in future shingles rash

biota of nervous system

none it is sterile

what is immune privilege

refers to the ability of certain tissues or organs to tolerate the presence of antigens without eliciting an immune response. This is due to a variety of factors, including physical barriers, lack of lymphatic drainage, and the presence of immunosuppressive molecules.

Examples of immune privileged sites in the body include the eye, brain, and testes.

what is encephalitis

is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the brain. It can be caused by viral infections, bacterial infections, or autoimmune disorders.

Symptoms may include fever, headache, confusion, seizures, and in severe cases, coma or death.

treatment typically involves antiviral or antibiotic medications, as well as supportive care to manage symptoms.

what is meningitis

is an inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, known as the meninges. It is usually caused by a bacterial or viral infection and can lead to serious complications if left untreated. Symptoms include fever, headache, neck stiffness, and sensitivity to light.

what is meningoencephalitis

is a medical condition that involves inflammation of both the brain and the meninges, which are the protective membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

It can be caused by a variety of factors, including viral or bacterial infections, autoimmune disorders, or other underlying medical conditions.

Symptoms may include fever, headache, confusion, seizures, and other neurological symptoms. Treatment typically involves supportive care and medications to manage symptoms and address the underlying cause of the condition.

what are arboviruses

are viruses that are transmitted to humans and other animals by arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and sandflies. The term "arbovirus" is short for "arthropod-borne virus." Some examples of arboviruses include Zika virus, West Nile virus, and dengue virus.

is poliovirus still in the world

yes is still present in some parts of the world, although it has been eradicated in many countries through vaccination efforts.

Afghanistan and Pakistan are the only two countries where wild poliovirus transmission has never been interrupted.

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what are prions and how do you destroy them

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are infectious agents that are composed entirely of protein. are highly resistant to traditional methods of sterilization, such as heat and chemicals.

The most effective way to destroy is through incineration at very high temperatures or through the use of strong oxidizing agents, such as sodium hypochlorite or sodium hydroxide.

what is bacteremia

is the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream, which can lead to serious infections and sepsis if left untreated.

what is septicemia

also known as sepsis, is a potentially life-threatening condition caused by the body's response to an infection.

It occurs when bacteria or other harmful microorganisms enter the bloodstream and spread throughout the body, causing inflammation and damage to tissues and organs. Symptoms may include fever, chills, rapid heartbeat, low blood pressure, and confusion. Immediate medical attention is necessary to treat septicemia.

what is viremia

is the presence of a virus in the bloodstream. It occurs when a virus enters the bloodstream and spreads throughout the body, potentially causing systemic infectio

fungemia

is a medical condition characterized by the presence of fungi or yeasts in the bloodstream. It is also known as fungaemia or bloodstream fungal infection. Fungemia can occur in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those undergoing chemotherapy or organ transplantation, or in patients with indwelling catheters or other medical devices.

Symptoms of fungemia may include fever, chills, and low blood pressure. Treatment typically involves antifungal medications and addressing the underlying cause of the infection.