AP Psych Unit 6

Developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

behavioral genetics

study of hereditary influences and how it influences behavior and thinking

heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

environment

the surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives or operates.

family studies

researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait

twin studies

a common method of investigating whether nature or nurture affects behavior

adoption studies

assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

nature

the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

stages v continuity

Do we see behavior change in discrete, sudden shifts (Stages) as we age?
versus
Do we see behavior change slowly along a gradual continuum (Continuity) as we develop?

stability v. change

Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age?

prenatal development

The baby's development during a pregnancy

development of senses

Infant world grows increasingly comprehensible with development of sensation and perception

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

fetal alcohol syndrome

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking

startle reflex

response that one makes after a sudden, unexpected loud noise or similar sudden stimulus

palmar reflex

when you place your finger in an infant's palm, he will grasp it

rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

motor skills

the learned abilities to move some part of the body, in actions ranging from a large leap to a flicker of the eyelid

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Piaget's Theory

the Swiss psychologist, suggests that children's intelligence undergoes changes as they grow. Cognitive development in children is not only related to acquiring knowledge, children need to build or develop a mental model of their surrounding world

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

schemas

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information; mental molds into which we pour our experiences

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

assimilation

the social process of absorbing one cultural group into harmony with another; interpreting new information in terms of an existing schema

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

reversibility,

the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point

seriation

Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume.

cognitive dissonance

Inner tension that a consumer experiences after recognizing an inconsistency between behavior and values or opinions

separation anxiety

emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment

stranger anxiety

negative reactions of infants to strangers; develops around 8 months; develops schemas for faces and can’t recognize new ones

egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

Vygotsky

Social Development Theory; education studies

zone of proximal development

In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they recieve proper guidance and instruction

scaffolding

the support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth

social interaction

the process by which people act and react in relation to others

Infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

temperament difficult

get held less. don't want to be held. sometimes there skin is very sensitive. Usually lead to child abuse they don't have a bond with the parents.

temperament easy

quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, is generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences (40%)

temperament slow to warm up

Low activity levels

Tend to withdraw from new situations and people

Slow to adapt to new experiences, but accept them after repeated exposure

attachment theory

a theory about how our early attachments with our parents shape our relationships for the rest of our lives

John Bowlby

Attachment theory. Identified the characteristics of a child's attachment to his/her caregiver and the phases that a child experiences when separated from the caregiver.

Harry Harlow's Monkey Studies

Harlow removed young monkeys from their natural mothers a few hours after birth and left them to be "raised" by these mother surrogates. The experiment demonstrated that the baby monkeys spent significantly more time with their cloth mother than with their wire mother.

attachment behavior

actions such as crying, smiling, vocalizing, and gesturing that help bring an infant into closer proximity to its caretaker

Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation Experiment

The original method, developed by the influential psychologist Mary Ainsworth, is the laboratory procedure called the "Strange Situation" (Ainsworth et al 1978). It tests how babies or young children respond to the temporary absence of their mothers.

secure attachments

66%; constantly explored when parent was present; distressed when they left and came to parents when they returned

avoidant attachments

Infants may resist being held by the parents and will explore the novel environment. They do not go to the parents for comfort when they return after and absence (21%)

ambivalent attachments

Pattern in which an infant becomes anxious before the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely upset during his or her absence, and both seeks and resists contact on his or her return.

disorganized attachments

where the infant responds inconsistently because of conflicting feelings toward an inconsistent caregiver who is the potential source of either reassurance or fear

Erikson's Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual development.

socialization

the process by which individuals internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of a given society and learn to function as members of that society

parenting styles

authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, uninvolved

authoritative parenting styles

firm, sets limits and goals, encouraging
child=good social skills, likeable, self reliant, and independent

permissive parenting styles

inconsistent, undemanding
child=immature, moody, dependent, low self-control

uninvolved parenting styles

detached emotionally, sees role only as provider
child=indifferent,rejecting behavior

self-regulation

the exercise of voluntary control over the self to bring the self into line with preferred standards

gender (sex) roles

attitudes and activities that a society links to each sex

infancy and trust

the state of feeling confident that they are valued and that their needs will be met

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson's first stage during the first year of life, infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner (Infancy from birth to 18 months); reliant on others to meet needs and care

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt (Toddler years from 18 months to three years)

Initiative vs. Guilt

\-4 - 5 years -WHAT can I do? -Curiosity -Free Play allow child to try, encourage, guide OR not allowing child to try, scolding

Industry vs. Inferiority

6-10 years Can I do things socially? ; Comparison of tasks to others; Perseverance Capacity to work, to problem solve Teachers play a big role

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescence. Who am I and where am I going? (Teen years from 12 to 18); pressure to identify with what one wants to do with life

Intimacy vs. Isolation

\-20 to 30 years -how do I love? -how do I want to be loved? -what do relationships mean to me?

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Between the ages of 30 and 65 is when this stage in life occurs. This is usually when people go through their midlife crisis. They try to find purpose in family and work to make them feel like they are still contributing to society and giving back, otherwise the meaning of life deteriorates.

Integrity vs. Despair

* old age, 65-85
\-How have I lived my life?
\-Finding the meaning in one's life
* Has it all been worth it?

Puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Emerging adulthood characteristics

1. Identity exploration
2. Instability
3. Self-focus
4. Feeling in-between
5. Age of possibilities

self-esteem

how much you value, respect, and feel confident about yourself

adolescent brain development

1. Pruning continues in the frontal lobes
2. Growth and myelination speed up, strengthening connections among regions
-resulting cognitive advances, 1&2:
attention
planning
integrating information
self-regulation
3. Neurotransmitter response changes, making more sensitive to excitatory messages
intensifies reactions to:
stress
pleasure, novelty

identity formation

Erickson's term for the development of a stable sense of self necessary to make the transition from dependence on others to dependence on oneself

ethnic identity

a person's identification with a racial or ethnic group

identity crisis

a period of inner conflict during which adolescents worry intensely about who they are

Kohlberg

Theory of Moral Reasoning; believed moral reasoning helps guide our judgments and behavior

preconventional morality

first level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior; actions based on reward or punishment

conventional morality

second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior; pleasing others and conforming to social laws

postconventional morality

third level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the person's behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual and that may be in disagreement with accepted social norms; guided by moral rule

moral development

growth in the ability to tell right from wrong, control impulses, and act ethically

Heinz Dilemma

A woman is dying and needs an expensive medication. Husband cannot afford the medication, should he steal it or should she die?

Menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

cognitive decline

After the age of 20, people show dramatic declines on some measures of cognitive performance but not others

Crystalized

our accumulated knowledge, as reflected in vocabulary and word-power tests— increases as we age, into middle age.

midlife transition

a period in middle adulthood when a person's perspective on his or her life may change significantly

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Erikson's stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service

Genertivity

does the change behavior show in other environments such as school, home, and public areas.

ego integrity

sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life and the ability to let go of regrets; the final completion of the ego

terminal drop

a sharp decline in mental functioning that tends to occur in late adulthood, a few years or months before death

Alzheimer's

A progressive disease that destroys memory and other important mental functions.
Brain cell connections and the cells themselves degenerate and die, eventually destroying memory and other important mental functions.
Memory loss and confusion are the main symptoms.
No cure exists, but medications and management strategies may temporarily improve symptoms.

early adulthood

19-40 years

Nature vs Nurture

what we were born with vs the environment

Continuity vs stages

slow development or specific stages

Conception

fusion of sperm and egg

Zygote

0 to 14 days