PSY-101 Exam 2

Chapters 6, 7, and 8

Learning

A change in behavior resulting from experience.

Habituation

A decrease in behavioral response after lengthy of repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Sensitization

An increase in behavioral response after lengthy or repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learned response in which a neutral object comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces a response.

* ex. music from scary movie elicits anxiousness when heard.

Operant Conditioning

Learning that a behavior leads to a particular outcome.

* ex. studying leads to better grades

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that elicits a response that is innate and does not require any prior learning.

* ex. Food

Unconditioned Response (UR)

A response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex.

* ex. Salivation

Neutral Stimulus

Anything seen or heard; must not associate with the unconditioned response.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned.

Acquisition

The gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.

Extinction

A response process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

A process in which a previously extinguished response reemerges after the conditioned stimulus is presented again.

Stimulus Generalization

Learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response.

Stimulus Discrimination

A differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

Second-Order Conditioning

Second conditioned stimulus becomes associated with first conditioned stimulus; elicits conditioned response when presented alone.

Counterconditioning

Exposing subject to their phobia during an enjoyable task.

Systematic Desensitization

Exposure to feared stimulus while relaxing.

Operant Conditioning

A learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that the action will be performed in the future.

Law of Effect

Any behavior leading to a “satisfying state of affairs” is likely to be repeated; vice versa.

Reinforcer

Stimulus that occurs after response and increases the likelihood of response reoccurring.

Shaping

Operant-Conditioning technique; reinforce behaviors that are similar to the desired behavior.

Primary Reinforcers

Reinforcers that are necessary for survival.

* ex. food or water

Secondary Reinforcers

Events or objects that serve as reinforcers, but do not satisfy biological needs.

Premack Principle

More valued activity can reinforce performance of less valued activity.

* ex. Eat your spinach and then you’ll get dessert

Positive Reinforcement

The addition of a stimulus to increase the probability that the behavior will be repeated.

* ex. Giving a child a piece of candy after using the toilet

Negative Reinforcement

The removal of a stimulus to increase the probability that the behavior will be repeated.

* ex. taking a pill to get rid of a headache

Positive Punishment

The addition of a stimulus to decrease the probability that the behavior will be repeated.

* ex. Speeding ticket

Negative Punishment

The removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability that the behavior will be repeated.

* ex. Loss of privileges

Continuous Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced each time it occurs.

Partial Reinforcement

Behavior is occasionally reinforced.

Fixed Interval Schedule (FI)

Reinforcing the occurrence of a particular behavior after a predetermined amount of time since the last reward.

* ex. Paycheck

Variable Interval Schedule (VI)

Reinforcing the occurrence of a particular behavior after an unpredictable and varying amount of time since the last reward.

* ex. Pop quiz

Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR)

Reinforcing a particular behavior after that behavior has occurred a predetermined number of times.

* ex. Paid by the completed task

Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)

Reinforcing a particular behavior after that behavior has occurred an unpredictable and varying number of times.

* ex. Slot Machine

Behavior Modification

Operant conditioning replaces unwanted behaviors with desirable behaviors.

Token Economies

Opportunity to earn tokens (secondary reinforcer) for completing tasks and/or losing tokens for behaving badly.

Cognitive Map

A visuospatial mental representation of an environment.

Latent Learning

Learning that takes place in the absence of reinforcement.

Insight Learning

A sudden understanding of how to solve a problem after a period of either inaction or thinking about the problem.

Observational Learning

The acquisition or modification of a behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behavior.

Modeling

The imitation of behavior through observational learning.

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing that action.

Encoding

The processing of information so that it can be stored.

Storage

The retention of encoded representations over time.

Retrieval

The act of recalling or remembering stored information when it is needed.

Attention

Focusing mental resources on information

* Allows further processing for perception, memory, and response.

Filter Theory

Attempts to explain how we selectively attend to the most important information presented to us.

Change Blindness

An individual’s failure to notice large visual changes in the environment.

Sensory Storage

A memory storage system that very briefly holds a vast amount of information from the five senses in close to their original sensory formats.

Short-Term Storage

A memory storage system that briefly holds a limited amount of information in awareness.

Working Memory

An active processing system that allows manipulation of different types of information to keep it available for current use.

Memory Span

The capacity limit of short-term storage is generally 7 items (plus or minus 2).

Chunking

Using working memory to organize information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember.

Long-Term Storage

A memory storage system that allows relatively permanent storage, of a probably unlimited amount of information.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Using working memory processes to repeat information based on how it sounds.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Using working memory processes to think about how new information relates to ourselves or our prior knowledge.

Primary Effect

Refers to the better memory people have for items presented at the beginning of the list.

Recency Effect

Refers to the better memory people have for the most recent items, the ones at the end of the list.

Schemas

Decisions about how to chunk information depend on ________. Ways of structuring memory in long-term storage that help us perceive, organize, process, and use information.

Retrograde Amnesia

A condition in which people lose the ability to access memories they had before a brain injury.

Anterograde Amnesia

A condition in which people lose the ability to form new memories after experiencing a brain injury.

Explicit Memory

The system for long-term storage of conscious memories that can be verbally described.

Episodic Memory

A type of explicit memory that includes personal experiences.

Semantic Memory

A type of explicit memory that includes knowledge about the world.

Implicit Memory

The system for long-term storage of unconscious memories that cannot be verbally described.

Procedural Memory

A type of implicit memory that involved motor skills and behavioral habits.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to do something at some future time.

Forgetting

The inability to access a memory from long-term storage.

Retrieval Cues

Anything that helps a person access information from long-term storage.

Mnemonics

Learning aids or strategies that use retrieval cues to improve access to memory.

Retroactive Interference

When access to older memories is impaired by newer memories.

Proactive Interference

When access to newer memories is impaired by older memories.

Absentmindedness

The inattentive or shallow encoding of events.

Persistence

The continual reoccurrence of unwanted memories from long-term storage.

Distortion

Human memory is not a perfectly accurate representation of the past, it is flawed.

Memory Bias

The changing of memories over time so that they become consistent with our current beliefs/attitudes.

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid memories that seem like a flash photo, capturing the circumstances in which we first learned of a surprising and consequential or emotionally arousing event.

Misattribution

Occurs when we misremember the time, place, person, or circumstance involved with a memory.

Suggestibility

When people are given misleading information. This information affects their memory for an event.

Thinking

The mental manipulation of representations of information we encounter in our environments.

Analogical Representations

Mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of objects.

Symbolic Representations

Abstract mental representations that consist of words or ideas.

Schemas

Our prior knowledge and experience with information (personal organization).

Concept

A mental representation of objects, events, or relations around common themes.

Category

A list of features that determine if an object is a member of the _______.

Stereotypes

Cognitive schemas that allow for easy and fast processing of information about people, events, or groups based on their membership in certain groups.

Reasoning

Using information to determine if a conclusion is valid or reasonable.

Decision Making

Attempting to select the best alternative among several options.

Problem Solving

Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal.

Algorithm

A set of procedures to follow when thinking and making a decision.

Heuristic

A shortcut (rule of thumb or guideline) used to reduce amount of thinking that is needed to make decisions.

Availability Heuristic

The tendency to make a decision based on information that comes most easily to mind.

Representativeness Heuristic

The tendency to place people or objects in a category if they are similar to the concept that is the prototype.

Framing

How information is presented affects how that information is perceived and influenced decisions.

The Paradox of Choice

When too many options are available, especially when all of them are attractive, we experience conflict and indecision.

Working Backward

Helpful when the appropriate steps for solving a problem are not clear.

* involves proceeding from the goal state to the initial state.

Sudden Insight

The metaphorical lightbulb that goes on in your head when you suddenly realize the solution to the problem.

Restructuring

Thinking about a problem in a new way in order to solve it.

Mental Sets

A tendency to approach a problem in the same way that has worked in the past, which may make it harder to solve it.