Philosophers (uself)

wisdom

Sophie

Philien

to love

1. pursuit of wisdom

2. begins with wonder

3. is a dynamic process

4. ultimate aims

defining philosophy

1. Qualities of a critical thinker: open-minded, curious, self-aware, analytical, creative, knowledgeable.

2. the critical-thinking model

3. stages in critical thinking

becoming a Critical Thinker

1. the complete liberty of mind

2. freedom from all social, political, or religious prejudice

3. to care for the well-being of the soul

improve the quality of our lives by enlightening our minds

aim of philosophy

1. metaphysics

2. epistemology

3. ethics

4. political and social philosophy

5. aesthetics

6. logic

branch of philosophy

methaphysics

the study of the ultimate characteristics of reality or existence

epistemology

the study of knowledge, identifying and developing criteria and methodologies for what we know and why we know it.

ethics

the study of moral values and principles

political and social philosophy

the study of social values and political forms of government

aesthetics

the study of beauty, art and taste

logic

seeks to establish the rules of correct reasoning, clear understanding, and valid arguments.

metaphysics

typical issues include transcendence, being, existence in its individual and communal dimensions, causality, relations, analogy, etc.

ethics

how should we treat other people?

is there a “good life” for humans?

what is the relation between moral values and religion?

how do we decide on the moral rightness of social issues?

epistemology

what is truth?

Can we ever really know anything? What are the sources of knowledge? What is the relation between truth and knowledge? How can you increase your wisdom?

aesthetics

what is the nature of beauty? what is art?

logic

what are the logical principles of correct reasoning? How do people use incorrect reasoning to reach false conclusions?

political and social philosophy

what is the nature of justice? What is the most enlightened form of government?

David Hume

there is no “self,” only a bundle of constantly changing perceptions passing through the theatre of our minds.

John Locke

personal identity is made possible by self-consciousness.

Descartes

The self is a thinking thing, distinct from the body

Socrates, Plato, and Augustine

the self is an immortal soul that exists over time.

Immanuel Kant

the self is a unifying subject, an organizing consciousness that makes intelligible experience possible.

Sigmund Freud

the self is multi-layered.

Gilbert Ryle

the self is the way people behave.

Paul Chruchland

the self is the brain. Mental states will be superseded by brain states.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty

the self is embodied subjectivity.

Socrates (469-399 B.C.E)

Ancient Greek philosopher often called “the father of Western philosophy.” He created the conceptual framework and method of inquiry for much of Western thought. His teachings are known to us primarily through the writing of his student, Plato.

Ideas of Socrates

care for the soul

knowledge is necessary to become virtuous

knowledge = virtue —> happiness

all evil acts are committed out of ignorance

committing an injustice is far worse than suffering an injustice

Socrates’ view of the soul

the “true self” which is immortal and imperishable.

the soul is the source of deepest thoughts and aspirations

the core identity, your unique spirit that makes you distinct.

Quotes of Socrates

1. the true task of the philosopher is to know oneself

2. the unexamined life is not worth living

3. the worst thing that can happen to anyone is to live but die inside.

Socratic method

Socrates believed that his questioning method consisted in his ability to stimulate and guide others in the philosophical exploration of profound questions, enabling them to “give birth” to their own understanding.

note

Socrates explains that the soul uses the body as “an instrument of perception,” and that the soul “rules” the body in the same way that the divine rules the mortals.

note

for Socrates, our physical existence on Earth is merely an imperfect reflection of ultimate and eternal reality, and our purpose in life is to achieve communion with this ultimate reality.

Plato (427-347 B.C.E)

Ancient Greek philosopher of extraordinary significance in the history of ideas.

He not only preserved Socrates’ teachings for future generations but contributed original ideas on a wide range of issues such as morality, politics, metaphysics, and epistemology.

He has also often been cited as one of the founders of Western religion and spirituality.

The Chariot Analogy

Plato says, “We will liken the soul to the composite
nature of a pair of winged horses and a charioteer.”
One horse represents Passion, the other Appetite, and
the charioteer who tries to control them is Reason.

Physical Appetite

our basic biological needs such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire.

Spirit or Passion

our basic emotions such as love, anger, ambition, aggressiveness, empathy.

Reason

our divine essence that enables us to think deeply, make wise choices, and achieve a true understanding of eternal truths.

note

Plato believed that genuine happiness can only be achieved by people who consistently make sure that their Reason is in control of their Spirits and Appetites.

Quote of Plato

“For a man to conquer himself is the first and nobles of all victories.”

St. Augustine (354-430)

Christian philosopher and Bishop of Hippo in North Africa.

His synthesis of Platonic and Christian concepts was a major influence in the development of medieval Christian doctrine and western philosophy.

His writing includes a spiritual autobiography, The Confessions and a discussion of the spiritual path, The City of God.

He was canonized by the Catholic church in the fourteenth century.

St Augustine

• Christianity’s first theologian

• Influenced by the view of Plato but within the framework of Christianity.

• Believes that part of man dwells in the world (imperfect) but yearns to be the Divine.

• The body dies on earth while the soul lives eternally in spiritual bliss with “God”.

St Augustine’s ideas

• inner conflict which is natural in us

• he considers the body as “slave” to the soul

• the soul makes war with the body

• we are constantly undermined by egoism and pride

• believed that humanity cannot be perfected

• humans understand virtue and love but never quite able to secure that for ourselves

• non-existence of True Justice

note (Augustine)

• human person is not self-sufficient

• human person’s pride leads him away from God’s grace.

• human person is in a constant struggle for happiness.

• subordinating to the Divine Order by seeking eternal peace.

note

As his thinking matured, Augustine sought to develop a more unified perspective of the body and soul.

He ultimately came to view the body as the “spouse” of the soul,
with both attached to one another by a “natural appetite.” He concludes, “That the body is united with the soul, so that man may be entire and complete.

He adapted the concept of free will and the moral responsibility for actions.

two cities

City of God and City of Man

City of God

• based on love of God, even to the contempt of self.

• The greatest glory is found in and with God.

• God is the source of its strength

• Consists of those who live according to God.

City of Man

• based on love of self even to the contempt of God.

• seeks glory from men.

• delights in its own strength as represented in the person of its rulers.

• consists of those who live according to man.

Quotes of St. Augustine

1. this is the very perfection of a man, to fin out his own imperfections.

2. my heart is restless until it rests in you.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

French philosopher considered as the founder of modern philosophy

A mathematician and scientist

He was a leader in the 17th century scientific revolution.

Quotes of Rene Descartes

1. “I think; therefore I am.”

2. it is not enough to have a good mind; the main thing is to use it well.

rules for the Direction of the Mind

1. accept nothing as true that is not self-evident

2. divide problems into their simplest art

3. solve problems by proceeding from simple to complex

4. recheck the reasoning

Cartesian Dualism/substance

the relation between mind and body

he believed that mind exerted over the brain via the pineal gland

he held that mind was distinct from matter (body) but could influence matter

he believed the mind is the seat of our consciousness. Because it houses our drives, intellect, and passions, it gives us our identity and our sense of self.

Descartes

• all humans were born with knowledge through the higher power of emphasized the importance of cognition in human experience.

• the thinking self or soul is a nonmaterial, immortal, conscious being, independent of the physical laws of universe.

• the physical body is a material, non-thinking entity, fully governed by the physical laws of nature.

John Locke (1632-1704)

British philosopher and physician who laid the groundwork for an empiricist approach to philosophical questions.

His revolutionary theory that the mind is a tabula rasa, a blank slate on which experience writes, is detailed in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690).

Knowledge, in other words, is based on the careful observation or memories of previous experiences.

Reason plays a subsequent role in helping to figure out the significance of experience and to reach intelligent conclusions.

John Locke

all knowledge originates in our direct sense experience, which serve as judgement in evaluating ideas.

“empiricist” view of knowledge

a self is someone who considers its identity consistent

consciousness is necessary for us to have a unified self-identity in different times and places

John Locke

the essence of the self is its conscious awareness of itself as a thinking, reasoning, reflecting identity.

conscious awareness and memory of previous experiences are the keys to understanding the self.

His version of social contract theory “the legitimate political authority was derived from the consent of people and such consent could be withdrawn if the freedom of the individual was violated”

Quotes of John Locke

1. I have always thought the actions of men the best interpreters of their thoughts.

2. No man’s knowledge here can go beyond his experience.

Hume (1711-1776)

controversial 18th century Scottish Philosophy

skeptical examinations of religion, ethics, and history

historian and essayist

Quote of Hume

1. beauty is no quality in things themselves: it exists merely in the mind which contemplates them; and each mind perceives a different beauty.

2. you know that other people are humans not because you have seen their soul, but because you see them, hear them, feel them

3. one can only know what comes from the senses & experiences

4. the self is not an entity beyond the physical body

David Hume

the self is nothing but a bundle of impressions and ideas

IMPRESSION (source of our knowledge: where it comes from)

• basic objects of our experience/sensation

• forms the core of our thoughts

IDEAS (content of our knowledge: What it is)

• copies of impressions

• not as “real” as impressions

Immanuel Kant (1742-1804)

German philosopher considered by many to be the greatest thinker of the 18th century.

Kant attempted to synthesize the two competing schools of the modern period, rationalism and empiricism, by showing the important role both experience and reason play in constructing our knowledge of the world.

His works include the Critique of Pure Reason (1781; 1787) and Prolegomena to any future Metaphysics (1783).

Quotes of Immanuel Kant

1. Science is organized knowledge. Wisdom is organized life.

2. Always recognize that human individuals are ends, and do not use them as means to your end.

3. All our knowledge begins with the senses, proceeds then to the understanding, and ends with reason. There is nothing higher than reason.

Kant

our minds actively sort, organize, relate, and synthesize the fragmented, fluctuating collection of sense data that our sense organs take in.

this meaning-constructing activity is precisely what our minds are doing all of the time: taking the raw data of experience and actively synthesizing it into the familiar, orderly, meaningful world in which we live.

the unity of consciousness

is a phrase invented by Kant to describe the fact that the thoughts and perceptions of any given mind are bound together in a unity be being all contained in one consciousness my consciousness.

• it is in this sense that the self-constructs its own reality, actively creating a world that is familiar, predictable, and, most significantly, mine.

• it is yourself that is actively organizing all of your sensations and thoughts into a picture that makes sense to you.

• this picture is uniquely your picture.

• you are at the center of your world, and you view everything in the world from your perspective.

Kant

• our minds actively synthesize and relate these sensations in the process of creating an intelligible world.

• the sensations of immediate experience conform to our minds, rather than the reverse.

• we construct our world through these conceptual operations; and, as a result, this is a world of which we can gain insight and knowledge.

• the self performs a synthesizing, unifying functions because it transcends sense experience.

Categorical Imperative

1. universal moral law

2. treat people as ends

3. kingdom of ends

universal moral law

an ethical law can be universal if everybody wish to follow it equally

if an action is morally right or wrong it is similar for everyone

treat people as ends

treat others and own self as ends.

individuals capability of leading life should be recognized.

kingdom of ends

imaginary state whose laws protect individual autonomy

morality is not just a matter of individual conduct, but also the foundation of society.

Sigmund Freud (1956-1939)

Austrian doctor who founded the psychoanalytic school of psychology

His theories of the unconscious and his “talking cure” approach to treatment of certain mental illness had a profound influence on 20th century culture.

Among his works are The Interpretation of Dreams (1899) and An Outline of Psychoanalysis (1940).

The Unconscious Mind

Freud compared the mind to an iceberg

the conscious

the small amount of mental activity we know about

the subconscious

things we could be aware of if we wanted or tried.

the unconscious

things we could be aware of and can not become aware of.

the id

is part of the unconscious mind and compromises the two instincts: Eros and Thanatos.

conscious

• thoughts

• perceptions

subconscious

• memories

• stored knowledge

unconscious

• instincts - sexual and aggressiveness

id

• fears

• unacceptable sexual desires

• violent motives

• irrational wishes

• immoral urges

• selfish needs

• shameful experiences

• traumatic experiences

the unconscious self

unconscious forms the central core in the dynamics of the human personality

the unconscious contains basic instinctual drives including sexuality, aggressiveness, and self-destruction; traumatic memories; unfulfilled wishes and childhood fantasies.

the focus of the unconscious self challenges the traditional philosophical assumption that the self can be explored and understood primarily through rational reflection and analysis.

governed by the pleasure principle

the conscious self

governed by the reality principle

behavior and experience are organized in ways that are rational, practical and appropriate to the social environment.

usually takes into account the realistic demands of the situation, the consequences of various actions, and the overriding need to preserve the equilibrium of the entire psychodynamic system.

has the task of controlling the constant pressures of the unconscious self.

evidence of the unconscious

slips the tongue: think about a time in which you unexpectedly said what you really thought rather than what you intend to say.

dreams: describe a particularly disturbing dream, or a recurring dream, that expressed surprising or disturbing themes. What do you think the dream really meant?

neurosis: describe one sort of neurotic behavior in which you engage. (Don’t worry, everyone has at least one neurosis!)

id

“I want to do that now!”

superego

“it’s not right to do that”

ego

“maybe we can compromise.”

note

the job of the ego, is to balance the aggressiveness/pleasure-seeking drives of the id with the moral control of the superego.

Quotes of Sigmund Freud

1. the interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind.

2. how bold one gets when one is sure of being loved.

Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976)

Analytical philosopher. An important figure in the field known as “Linguistic Analysis” which is focused on the solving of philosophical puzzles through an analysis of language.

he mounted an attack against cartesian mind/body dualism and supported a behaviorist theory of mind.

Gilbert Ryle

denies the internal non-physical self.

“what truly matters is the behavior that a person manifests in his day-to-day life.

the self is not an entity one can locate and analyze but simply the convenient name that we use to refer to the behaviors that we make.

Gilbert Ryle’s bifurcated view of the self

human bodies are in space and are subject to the mechanical laws which govern all other bodies in space and are accessible to external observers. But minds are not in space, their operations are not just subject to mechanical laws.

two collateral histories in a person of what happens in and to his body, and other consisting of what happens in and to his mind. The first is public, the second private.

Gilbert Ryle

the category mistake happens when we think of the self as existing apart from certain observable behaviors, a purely mental entity existing in time but not in space.

the self is best understood as a pattern of behavior, the tendency or disposition for a person to behave in a certain way in certain circumstances.

consciousness

a dynamic form responsible for actively structuring our conscious ideas and physical behavior.

subjects’ own point of view on the world: the body is itself the original knowing subject from which all other forms of knowledge derive.

Quotes of Gilbert Ryle

1. man need not be degraded to a machine by being denied to be a ghost in a machine.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961)

French philosopher. Objected to philosophies that underestimated the significance of the body.

He argued that perception is fundamental to our knowledge of the world.

In The Phenomenology of Perception (1945), he argued that consciousness is a dynamic form that actively structures our experience.

Quotes of Ponty

1. Subjectivity is one of those ideas you should never return to, especially if you were able to overcome them.

   1. we know not through our intellect but through our experience.

Merleau-Ponty

Phenomenology is distinctive in the sense that its goal is not to explain experience but rather to clarify our understanding of it.

trying to uncover the meaning of what you are experiencing.

clearly understanding your unique experience.

Merleau-Ponty

• the self is embodied subjectivity

• phenomenology is a philosophical approach that attempts to give a direct description of our experience as it is in itself, without taking into account its psychological origins or causal explanations.

• “I live in my body” means an entity that can never be objectified or known in a completely objective sort of way, as opposed to the “body as object”

• Phenomenologists do not assume that there are more “fundamental” levels of reality beyond that of conscious human experience.

Paul Churchland1942

contemporary American philosopher and professor at the University of California, San Diego.

Churchland’s interests are the philosophy of science, the philosophy of mind, artificial intelligence and cognitive neurobiology, epistemology, and perception.

his writing includes The Engine of Reason, The Seat of the Soul: A Philosophical Journey into the Brain (1995).