group dynamics (stans set)

degrees of separation

number of steps removed from an origin
Phil-Clemens-Stan -\> 2 degrees of separation
Being connected to a lonely person makes you lonelier
This effect disappears by the 4th degree of separation

reactions to ostracism

1) increased stress
2) attempts to improve inclusionary status
3) heightened aggression
Behavior: Fight or Flight
Tend or befriend

Cyberball

An experiment in ostracism where people believed to be online with two other players who send the ball back and forth, and eventually exclude the participant. Ostracism is painful even when dispensed by strangers.. Or by a computer program.

Tend and befriend response

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)

Temporal Need-Threat Model of Ostracism (Williams)

-\>Detection
-\> Reflexive state (pain, distress)
-\> Deliberative stage (review experience)
-\> Resignation stage (attempts have failed -\> Withdrawal, fight or flight)

Sociometer theory (Leary)

Our self-confidence serves to monitor our degree of inclusion and exclusion. When self-esteem drops, we need to adopt new strategies/behaviors to correct it.

Brain regions that are active in physical pain and when experiencing rejection

Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC)
Anterior Insula

Needs affected by ostracism

Need to belong
Need for control
Need for meaningful existence
Need for self-esteem

core elements of Individualism/Collectivism (Triandis)

1. Significance of social relationships (exchange norm/norm of reciprocity vs communal relationships)
2. Acceptance of social obligations
3. Shared goals (equity norm vs equality norm)
4. Self-conceptions (personal goals vs connectedness to others, Internal vs external attribution)

equity norm vs equality norm

(rewards should be based on INPUT vs EQUAL)

Types of conformity

Compliance (private disagreement)
Conversion
Congruence (already agree)

Types of Non-Conformity

Interdependence (public disagreement)
Anticonformity (opposite of what group says)
Strategic anti conformity (devil's advocate, may privately agree)

Crutchfield Experiment

Light on the wall, anonymous
Answers of others were projected onto the wall
People could judge the stimulus
Less conformity

Asch Experiment

experimented how people would rather conform than state their own individual answer even though they know the group's answer is wrong.

Social Impact Theory (Latane)

The impact of an influence's source depends on
-Immediacy (how close)
-Strength (status)
-Number of sources

dynamic social impact theory

Improved upon weakness of social impact theory where people were passive recipients. Has four components: consolidation, clustering, correlation, principle of continuing diversity
Influence \= Personality x Situation

dual process theory influence

2 types of influence exist
Direct (persuasion, discussion)
Indirect

Optimal Distinctiveness Theory (Brewer)

-Need for assimilation
-Need for connection/intimacy
-Need for autonomy/differentiation
As such, medium-sized groups feel best because they offer all of these optimally in comparison to one another

social identity theory (taifel, turner et al.)

A person's identity within a particular social group is explained by social categorization, social identity (and social comparison)

social categorization

Stereotyping, putting self and others into categories

Social Identification Theory

in groups and out groups, person's sense of who they are based on their group membership.

social identification

accepting the group as an extension of the self and therefore basing one's self-definition on the group's qualities and characteristics.
Minority and small groups: Stronger effect (salient, stereotyping, depersonalized)

Motivation and social identity (Hoggs)

2 motives influence Social Identity and Social categorization:
-Motivation to think well of yourself. Group good \= I good
-Self-understanding: Groups offer a way to understand your self (need to belong)

collective self-esteem (Crocker)

Feelings of self-worth that are based on evaluation of relationships with others and membership in social groups.

4 elements of collective self-esteem (Crocker)

-Membership esteem (do I add value?)
-Private collective self esteem (do I think the group is good?)
-Public collective self-esteem (do others think the group is good?)
-Identity (are they important to my identity?)

BIRGing

basking in reflected glory

CORFing

"cutting off reflective failure," a strategy by which we try to disassociate ourselves from others who have failed or behaved poorly. e.g. Vfb

ingroup/outgroup bias

The tendency to have more negative attitudes towards outgroup members than towards ingroup members.

social creativity

The use of strategies that allow members of groups to compare their group in areas where they excell at.
E.g. We have much cooler sweaters than the rich kids!

stereotype verification

Using stereotypes about ingroup to justify performance and behaviors

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Can impair performance

Five Factor Model of Personality

a trait theory of personality that identifies
extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience
As fundamental building blocks of personality

Bowlby's attachment theory

children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments with caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival. This carries over into childhood.

Bowlby's attachment styles

secure, anxious-avoidant, insecure-avoidant, disorganized

Group level attachment styles

Anxiety \----- Avoidance

Preoccupied (low avoidance, high anxiety)
Secure (Low avoidance, low anxiety)
Dismissing (low anxious, high avoidance)
Fearful (high anxious, high avoidant)

social motivation for seeking out relationships

1. Intimacy
2. Affiliation
3. Power

big fish-little pond effect

High achievers are less confident when surrounded by other high-achievers

Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation (FIRO) - Schutz

Groups give three basic needs:
Inclusion (for affiliation motivation)
Control (for power)
Affection (for intimacy)

self-evaluation maintenance model (tesser) - SEM model

a theory predicting under what conditions people are likely to react to the success of others with either pride or jealousy.
If the areas are not important to their self-esteem: Great! If they are similar: Not so great

elaboration principle

Group members expand in size usually (new gf, new roommate etc.)

similarity principle

The notion that people are attracted to those who are most similar to themselves (homophily)

Complimentarity principle

Opposites can attract, if complementary (leader/follower, dominant/submissive)

interchange compatibility

Compatibility between group members based on their similar needs for inclusion, control, and affection.

originator compatibility

compatibility between group members that occurs when individuals who wish to express inclusion, control, or affection within the group are matched with individuals who wish to receive inclusion, control, or affection from others

social exchange theory (R, CLalt, CL)

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. Three factors influence what we decide on:
-\> R current group
-\> Clalt is the level alternative group
-\>CL is the standard

5 types of cohesion

-Social cohesion (attraction to group members and group in genereal)
-Task cohesion (Collective efficacy and group potency)
-Collective cohesion (perceived solidarity, sense of belonging)
-Emotional cohesion (emotional intensity and compatibility)
-Structural cohesion (Roles, norma and relationships linking members)

multicomponent assumption of cohesion

Many different factors contribute to the unity of a group. Can vary between military groups, family groups etc.

multilevel assumption of cohesion

Cohesion depends on relationships between group members (followers to leaders) and group towards the organization (vertical and organizational bonding)

Multimethod Assumption

Since cohesion is multifaceted, researchers use a wide variety of methods to measure it.

Tuckman's Stages of Group Development

Forming
Storming
Norming
Performing
Adjourning

equilibrium model (Bales)

Groups can cycle between norming and performing stages.
This is a shift between task-oriented behavior and relationship-oriented behavior.

old sergeant syndrome

psychological disturbance exhibited by noncommissioned officers in cohesive units that suffer heavy casualties.
They may struggle or refuse to build meaninful relationships with other recruits

Open and Closed Groups (robert ziller)

If group members are unreliable or can leave easily, there is less cohesion. Therefore, online groups are less cohesive

idiosincrasy credits

Leniency towards high-level group members that violate rulkes.

Dual-process theory of influence

Direct influence: Persuasion/discussion -\> often Minority
Indirect influence: Imitation/herding -\> often majority

influences on conformity (4x)

-Implicit (imitation, habits etc.)

-Informational (choices, information and social comparison. This information does not have to be true)

-Normative: Social norms, standards and conventions

-Interpersonal: Individuals encourage conformity and discourage deviance

black sheep effect

the tendency to be more punitive toward those members of one's group who violate the norms of the group than outgroup members.
Well-included members are more likely to dissent than less-established group members (idiosyncrasy credits)

prescriptive norms

State Positive behaviors and standards

Proscriptive norms

State negative behaviors and standards

descriptive norms

State what most people actually do

injunctive norms

State how people should act

Interactionist Theory

Members' group dynamics actively influence the roles they take

replacement hypothesis

In cohesive groups, emotional ties can become stronger than those linking family members. This leads to problems and replacement with a new "family"

SYMLOG: System for multiple level observation of groups (Bale)

System for the Multiple-Level Observation of Groups, both a theory about member characteristics and effects on group interaction, and a methodology that produces a three-dimensional "snapshot" of a group at a given point in time

SYMLOG: 3 Dimensions Classifying Group Activities

Dominance vs. Submissiveness
Friendliness vs. Unfriendliness
Acceptance vs. Opposition to Authority and tasks

Moreland & Levine's Model of Socialization (group/individual stages)

Model that references the process by which a person becomes a member of a team and leaves it.
4 stages for member: Entry, Acceptance, divergence, former member
3 stages for groups_ Recruitment, Accomodation/maintenance, reminiscence

inter-role conflict

conflict that occursoccurs when the expectations of two or more roles held by the same individual become incompatible, such as the conflict between work and family demands.

Intra-role conflict

conflict that occurs within a single role, such as when a person receives conflicting messages from role senders about how to perform a certain role (be more direct / be more friendly)

person-role conflict

conflict that occurs when an individual in a particular role is expected to perform behaviors that clash with his or her personal values or capabilities

centralized network

a communication structure in which team members communicate through a single individual to solve problems or make decisions.
Outperform decentralized networks.
However:
Efficiency depends on task difficulty (difficult -\> Bad)
Less central positions are undesireable

social network analysis (SNA)

a method for examining relationships and structures in a group, through graphing, measuring and quantifying the data

Groups as networks in SNA

3 points of analysis
-Density (ties / number of possible ties)
-Cliques and clusters
-Holes

power bases

legitimate: Socially sanctioned
reward
coercive
referent: Relational
expert: Expert
Informational

Hard vs. Soft power tactics

Coercive, one-sided and obvious
More reward-focused, convinving or manipulation

unilateral and bilateral power tactics

Unilateral: One-sided (threat, manipulation)
Bi-lateral: Depend on the other side (persuading, rewards, rule obedience)

Rational vs non-rational power tactics

Rational arguments vs ingratiation and emotional appeals

Ingratiation

the use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another's favor

indirect vs direct power tactics

Difficult to detect vs easy to detect

Iron Law of Oligarchy (Michels)

theory that power increasingly becomes concentrated in the hands of a few members of any organization

interpersonal complimentarity hypothesis

People perform complimentary behaviors, if not it makes them feel uneasy
Dominant-submissive
Mean-mean

Batsheba syndrome

High-status group members seek unfair privileges, such as sexual favors

Drive Theory of Social Facilitation (Zajonc)

Depends on arousal -\> easy tasks are better

evaluative apprehension theory (Couttrell)

Audience increases arousal, which makes simple tasks easier and difficult tasks harder.

self-presentation theory

a theory positing that we are eager to present ourselves in ways that make a good impression. Since we don't want to make a fool of ourselves, we may be socially inhibited.

distraction-conflict theory

a theory based on the idea that being aware of another person's presence creates a conflict between paying attention to that person and paying attention to the task at hand, and that this attentional conflict is arousing and produces social facilitation effects in simple tasks and social inhibition in complex tasks.

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
2 problems: Motivation and coordination

Ringelmann Effect

the phenomenon by which individual performance decreases as the number of people in the group increases (social loafing) -\> Motivation and coordination are the problem

process model of group performance (Steiner)

Actual performance \=
PotentialPerformance - Performance Losses

Theory of group productivity (Steiner)

3 things have an influnce on group productivity
Divisibility of tasks
Quantity vs quality
Interdependence

cross-functional team

a team composed of employees from different functional areas of the organization. Problems in group cohesion (loyalty toward ingroup)

multiple team system (MTs)

a networks of interrelated teams, usually function well

Holocracy

an organizational structure in which decision-making authority is distributed through loose collections or circles of self-organizing teams (type of MTs)

heavy-handed leadership

Team members struggle, group satisfaction is down

great leader theory (Carlyle)

successful leaders possess certain characteristics that mark them for greatness and that such great leaders shape the course of history

Zeitgeist theory (Tolstoy)

History is determined primarily by the "spirit of the times" rather than by the actions and choices of great leaders.

babble effect

The tendency for group members who talk at a high rate in the group to emerge as leaders, even if the information they share with the group is of low quality.

implicit leadership theory

based on the idea that people have beliefs about how leaders should behave and what they should do for their followers, even if they are not aware of these beliefs.
Most common: Task-related skills and interpersonal skills

Warren Harding effect

followers prefer attractive, well-spoken (but possibly inexperienced or unskilled) leaders

terror management theory

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death.
In times of crisis, people tend to flock to more charismatic, male leaders and less toward relationship-oriented ones.
Task-oriented leaders are always preferred

2-factor model of leadership (Blake&Monton)

1: Guide group members through tasks
2: Maintain interpersonal bonds

Leadership: task-centeredness versus their person-centeredness. 9/9 is best