BIOL LSU Crousillac Final Chs 10-12, 14

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154 Terms

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gene

unit of DNA that encodes info needed to produce proteins, cells, & entire organisms;

can be a few hundred to many thousands of nucleotides in length

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locus

location of a gene on a chromosome

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autosomes

non-sex chromosomes

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homologous chromosomes

carry the same kinds of genes for the same characteristics

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alleles

alternative versions of genes found at the same gene locus; formed by mutations

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homozygous

homologous chromosomes carry same allele at gene locus

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heterozygous

two homologous chromosomes carry different alleles at given locus; also called hybrid

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Punnett Square Method

predicts offspring genotypes and phenotypes from combinations of parental gametes

1. Assign letters to the different alleles of the characteristic under consideration (dominant=uppercase, recessive=lowercase)

2. determine the possible gametes from both parents

3. write gametes from each parent along each side of 2x2 grid

4. fill in genotypes of each pair of combined gametes in the grid

5. determine genotypic ration based on outcome

6. based on dominant and recessive traits, calculate predicted phenotype

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.Gregor Mendel

discovered patterns of inheritance and many essential facts about genes, alleles, and distribution of alleles during reproduction; used pea plants to see patterns in way plant characteristics were inherited

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why did Mendel use pea plants?

has both carpel (female) and stamen (male) reproductive structures and naturally self-fertilize; was able to cross-fertilize

pollen from stamen transfers to carpel

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key to Mendel's success

chose a simple design, studies one trait at a time and followed several generations

ex. white vs purple flowers

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true breeding

homozygous for a characteristic

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genotype

particular combination of the 2 alleles carried by an individual

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phenotype

physical expression of the genotype (purple or while flowers)

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test cross

used to deduce whether an organism w/ a dominant phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous

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female sex chromosomes

two X chromosomes

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male sex chromosomes

X chromosome and Y chromosome

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incomplete dominance

when the heterzygous phenotype is intermediate btw the two homozygous phenotypes,

some alleles are incompletely dominant over others

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blood type

single gene may have multiple alleles, produce types A,B,AB,O from 3 alleles, A,B,o

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alleles A and B

code for enzymes that add different sugar molecules to the ends of glycoproteins that protrude from red blood cells

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allele o

codes for nonfunctional enzymes that do not add any sugar molecules

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codominance

when heterozygotes express the phenotypes of both the homozygotes (both A and B glycoproteins in AB blood type)

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universal donor (type O)

lacks sugars and not attacked by antibodies, makes A & B antibodies

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nondisjunction

incorrect separation of chromosomes in meiosis; causes gametes to have too many & too few chromosomes

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nucleic acids

polymers of nucleotides linked together by dehydration synthesis reactions;

information storage and transmission

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genes

units of heredity made of nucleic acid(DNA)

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nucleotides

building block molecules of nucleic acid; composed of a sugar, phosphate group and nitrogenous base

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nucleic acid backbone

sugar and phosphate groups structure

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pyrimidines

nitrogenous bases characterized by a 6-membered ring made up of carbon and nitrogen atoms

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purines

nitrogenous bases characterized by 5-membered ring fused to a 6-membered ring where both rings are made up of carbon and nitrogen atoms

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Chargaff's rules

Adenine (A) = Thymine (T)

Guanine (G) = Cytosine (C)

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Waton and Crick

discovered the double helix

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Human Genome Project

revealed that 98.5% of DNA serves no purpose and does not encode for mRNA or any other RNA

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mini-satellite sequences

single nucleotide differences btw individuals of the same species, account for fingerprint identification

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forensic DNA analysis

commercially available in 1987; overturned over 200 rulings nicknamed "DNA 200"

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recombinant DNA

combination of DNA from 2 or more organisms into a single DNA molecule; many important proteins such as insulin, HGH, and EPO are commercially produced this way

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DNA tech in agriculture

1995, recombinant DNA used to insert bacterial gene in plant DNA to produce crystal spore that kills insects with no threat to plants or humans and pesticides were no longer used

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DNA replication

requires 20+ enzymes and accessory proteins, extremely rapid and accurate

1. double helix unwinds & strands separate

2. each strand acts as a template

3. new strand winds up w/ old strand

each new DNA double helix is half old/parent strand and half new/daughter strand

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helicase

enzyme that separates DNA strands to form a replication "bubble"; at each end is a replication fork where new strands are being made

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replication fork

Y-shaped regions of replicating DNA where new strands are growing

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DNA polymerase

enzyme that synthesizes new DNA strands

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DNA ligase

enzyme that joins the small DNA segments of the lagging (daughter strand)

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leading strand synthesis

DNA polymerase moves in the same direction as helicase, adds complimentary nucleotides in the 5' to 3' direction

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lagging strand synthesis

DNA polymerase moves in the opposite direction of helicase

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proteins

results from the instructions given by DNA

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transcription

RNA is synthesized using DNA as an instruction template

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mRNA (messenger RNA)

RNA that is synthesized from a gene coding for a protein; complimentary to DNA

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4 bases of DNA

adenine

guanine

cytosine

thymine

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4 bases of RNA

adenine

guanine

cytosine

thymine

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translation

RNA directs the synthesis of a polypeptide protein;

converts language of nucleic acids (4 bases)into language of proteins (20 amino acids)

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tRNA (transfer) and rRNA (ribosomal)

interpreters btw nucleotide mRNA and amino acid proteins

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triplet

how many nucleotides code for one amino acid

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codon

every 3 letters of mRNA nucleotides

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how many possible codons can be many in a single DNA strand template?

4 nucleotides^3 codons = 64 possible codons

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start codon

AUG (codes for methionine)

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stop codons

UGA

UAG

UAA

JUST MEAN STOP

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T/F: more than one codon can code for the same amino aid

TRUE

only 20 amino acids, but 64 possible codon combinations

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transcription-initiation

RNA polymerase nbinds to the promoter region of DNA near beginning of gene, separates double helix near promoter

tells RNA where to "land"

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T/F: enzymes get destroyed after use

FALSE

they get recycled

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transcription-elongation

RNA polymerase travels along DNA and catalyzes addition of ribose nucleotides into RNA

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transcription-termination

at end of gene, RNA polyemerase encounters sequence of DNA called a termination signal,

RNA polymerase detaches from DNA and releases RNA molecule

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transcription result

after termination, DNA rewinds into double helix,

RNA molecule free to move from nucleus to cytoplasm for translation

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RNA polymerase

enzyme that binds to promoter region of DNA and separates the double helix to begin catalyzing the addition of ribose nucleotides; may move to another gene and begin transcription or rebind to the same promoter & transcribe the same gene again

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how does initiation begin?

RNA polymerase finds a promoter region and binds, causing the DNA double helix to unwind

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translation

RNA-directed synthesis of proteins according to the genetic message of sequential codons in the mRNA

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ribosome

where proteins are built; coordinates the pairing of tRNA anticodons w/ mRNA codons; composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein

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P-site

holds the tRNA w/ the polypeptide chain attached

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A-site

holds the tRNA w/ the next amino acid to be added

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where does protein synthesis occur?

on the ribosomes outside the nucleus

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tRNA

interpreter btw nucleotide language of mRNA & amino acid language of proteins;

transfers correct amino acid from cytoplasmic pool of amino acids to ribosome for protein synthesis

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initiation of translation

initiation complex binds to mRNA, start codon of mRNA pairs to anticodon base of tRNA

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translation: elongation

tRNA occupies Asite and anticodon hydrogen bonds to codon of mRNA; peptide bond formation

methionine from initiator tRNA forms peptide bond w/ amino acid on tRNA at Asite, leaves tRNA at Psite w/ no amino acid and tRNA at Asite w/ dipeptide attached

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translation: translocation

tRNA vacates Psite, ribosome moves one codon down mRNA; translocates tRNA (w/ growing peptide) from Asite to Psite

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translation: termination

mRNA reaches stop codon (UAA, UAG, UGA)

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mutations

permanent changes in DNA the can involve large chromosomal regions or single nucleotide pair

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point mutations

mutations linked to one or two nucleotides in a single gene & can affect the function of a protein

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substitution mutation

replacement of one base w/ another

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insertion mutation

insertion of one or more nucleotide pairs into a gene

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deletion mutation

deletion of one or more nucleotide pairs from a gene

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evolution

change in the genetic makeup of a population over time as a result of natural selection

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how did the idea of evolution develop?

explorers observed vast numbers of species where patterns emerged that seemed inconsistent w/ the idea that species were created fixed and unchanging by God;

fossils also revealed that life has changed over time especially through the layers of rock

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fossils

preserved remains or traces of organisms that died long ago; petrified remains of bones, wood, shells, or impressions in mud mostly found in sedimentary rock

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Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace

provided evidence of the occurrence of evolution and proposed the mechanism for how it occurs - natural selection

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descent w/ modification

individuals in each generation differ slightly from the members of the preceding generation; over long periods of time, small genetic differences accumulate to produce major transformations

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Principle 1 of Darwin/Wallace theory

individual members of a population are different from one another; variations arise by chance from random mutations in DNA and differences can be obvious in many physical characteristics

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Principle 2 of Darwin/Wallace theory

at least some differences between members of a population are characteristics that may be passed from parent to offspring (mechanism of inheritance not understood yet)

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Principle 3 of Darwin/Wallace theory

in each generation, some individuals in a population survive & reproduce successfully, some do not; observed that more individuals are born to survive than reproduce and some individuals have more offspring than others

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Principle 4 of Darwin/Wallace theory

natural selection, in competition to survive and reproduce, winners are determined not by chance but by the traits the possess

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natural selection

individuals w/ advantageous traits survive longest and produce the most offspring ; modifies populations over time even though it acts on individuals b/c the percentage of individuals inheriting favorable traits increases

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which part of the pea plant contains ovaries.

carpels

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how do we know that evolution occurred?

1. fossils provide evidence of evolutionary change overtime

2. comparative anatomy gives evidence of descent w/ modification

3. embryological similarity suggests common ancestry

4. modern genetic analysis reveal similarities in genes among diverse organisms

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t/f only dominant phenotypes can be described as true breeding

FALSE

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when Mendel crossed a true breeding purple and true breeding white, what were the results?

all purple flowers

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________ is determined by __________

phenotype, genotype

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in a test cross what type of phenotype is the unknown ALWAYS crossed with?

recessive bc of known genotype

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which of the following determines sex of child in humans?

male gamete/X or Y sperm

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is it possible for 2 curly haired parents to produce a wavy haired child?

NO

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person w/ blood type AB can receive blood from...?

ANYONE

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individual w/ down syndrome has 3 copies of which chromosome?

trisomy-21

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which of these is a Pyrimidine?

cytosine, thymine (they have y's)