full paper: war of the roses

What kind of King was Henry VI

* he was weak and pious
* had little interest in carrying out 'Kingly' orders
* was controlled by Somerset and his court party
* would pray in his room all day and wouldn't come out most of the time
* wore very simple clothing and didn't look like a 'King' who was meant to wear extravagant and royal clothing

Who were the main people in Henry’s peace party and what was their aims?

* the PEACE party which included the king and his leading advisors pursued a policy of peace with France → the AIM was to bring the war to end but keep some of the sig. gains made by Henry V
* members included:  Henry VI, William Pole, Duke of Suffolk: Steward of the Royal household - KEY member **Henry Cardinal Beaufort : Royal councillor and personal enemy of Duke of Gloucester**, Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset: cousin to Henry VI → given overall military command in France in 1447.

Who were the main people in the War party and what was their aims?

* the WAR party consisted of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, brother to Henry V and survived Agincourt.
* he was the 'people's hero' and wanted to fight for Henry V's legacy → he was a popular figure as crowds would cheer for him on the streets.
* he became the leading opponent of the king's gov. and its peace policy

What was the Treaty of Tours of 1444 and the surrender of Maine and Anjou?

* on 26th April 1444, an English embassy led by the Duke of Suffolk arrived at Tours in France to negotiate w/ the French.
* the Treaty included:
* a truce to last only 21 months
* the marriage of Henry VI to MARGARET OF ANJOU (a French princess of niece of Charles VII of France) → the marriage came w/ the surrendering of the French province of Maine as part of the agreement → this wasn't part of the formal treaty and Henry wanted PEACE and wanted to end the war forever → the country was in UPROAR + Gloucester went ballistic → thought it was FOOLISH by an incompetent king
* Suffolk was now promoted to MARQUIS
* ANJOU + MAINE were both finally surrendered to the French under the treaty of Lavardin in 1448.

What were people unhappy about the marriage of Margaret of Anjou and Henry VI?

* she wasn't v. prestigious or directly related to the king.
* no dowry was to be provided for Margaret → the brides family would pay the cost of the wedding → she didn't the dowry → her father was LANDLESS
* Henry ended up paying and Gloucester was INCANDESCENT WITH RAGE.

What happened when it was the end of the Lancastrian France between 1449-53?

* the French used the truce of Tours to reorganise and created a permanent well trained army w/ a modern artillery train.
* the French just needed an excuse to restart the conflict and this came in March 1449 when Lancastrian commanders under Somerset sanctioned an attack on Fougeres in Brittany.
* this was part of an attempt to rescue Gilles, the Duke of Brittany's pro-English brother. 
* though this was not an attack on France, Duke Francis of Brittany called on the French for help and Charles VII was only too happy to oblige. 
* from 1449: French forces pushed the English out of the French territory w/ little fighting and NORMANDY fell in 1450 and GASCONY followed in 1451 leaving just Calais in English hands.
* the total and sudden collapse of England's French empire sent shock waves around the country and most blamed the gov.'s policy of peace.

Why was William de la Pole Duke of Suffolk imprisoned in 1450?

* he was in league w/ the French and had betrayed military and diplomatic secrets to them → in particularly, he was accused of giving the County of Maine to the French in 1447 → it was even claimed that he'd plotted w/ the French ambassador in 1447 for a French army to invade, depose Henry VI and put Suffolk's son on the throne.
* that £60,000 of taxation in the royal exchequer raised for the war was stolen by Suffolk who gave it to himself and his friends.
* he'd used his position to pervert justice, eg → he'd ordered the Sheriff of Lincolnshire not to arrest William Talibois, an associate of Suffolk's on charges of murder after he carried out a violent attack.

What happened at the first battle of St Albans and when was it?

* 1455
* when the 2 sides met at St Albans, the king's army of about 2000 occupied the main street
* the Yorkist army of about 3,500 was positioned just outside the town.
* at 10am, a series of NEGOTIATIONS were initiated by the royal party → messengers dispatched by Buckingham (the royal commander) and Somerset questioned York's intentions and encouraged him to w/draw to Barnet.
* York's own messengers demanded that his grievances should be met and his loyalty to the king be accepted → he also wanted Somerset handed over to him + was convinced that his messengers were not getting the to king himself and feared being charged w/ treason.
* SKIRMISHING was seemingly taking place while negotiations were going on (probs between Nevilles and Percys)
* after negotiations had failed York decided to force his way into the king's presence and capture Somerset and the Yorkists attacked the king's position down the town's streets.

What was the aftermath of first battle of St Albans?

* the battle may only have left about 60 casualties, but these included Somerset, Percy (earl of Northumberland) and Lord Clifford (northern ally of Percy's) → the Yorkists were later accused of COLD BLOODED MURDER.
* the Yorkists had effectively committed TREASON by attacking the king's standard + may have lost sympathy amongst the other lords → they remained an ISOLATED FACTION
* the Yorkists now controlled the king and all the blame for the battle was assigned to Somerset → in the summer Parliament the king declared that York and the Nevilles were his faithful subjects.
* in November 1455, the commons pressed the lords to appoint a protector to deal w/ violence in the west country as the king had a relapse → York was soon appointed
* BEAUFORT, CLIFFORD AND PERCY all had heirs and their deaths at St Albans started a BLOOD FEUD w/ York + Nevilles → the LANCASTRIAN + YORKIST factions were now fully formed.

What were 5 consequences of the first battle of St Albans?

1. the sons of those killed at St Albans weren't going to forgive and forget as they wanted to seek revenge → eg - the Duke of Somerset's son and heir, Henry Beaufort was present at the battle and saw his father die → he was to pursue a VENDETTA against York and the Nevilles once he came of age in 1457 → 'BLOOD FUEDS' and the sons of the other nobles who were killed also had the same plans.
2. parliament blamed the events of St Albans on Somerset and some minor members of the household → the Duke of Exeter was arrested and the Duke of Buckingham was placed under bonds → the nobility were prepared to tolerate York but nothing more, they couldn't forget the fact he'd taken power by killing the opposition.
3. the events of St Albans were inevitably going to impact Henry VI, given his mental fragility, more esp. as he was wounded (arrow to his neck) → at the moment he was captured by York, he probably thought his end had come, only to be taken to SAFETY ---> w/in 2 weeks of the battle, Henry VI fell sufficiently ill for a physician to be summoned to Windsor to treat what was possibly a return of his previous illness.
4. due to the ill health of Henry and the death of Somerset, Margaret of Anjou found herself in the position of leader of the Lancastrian party → she wanted desperately to keep her son's position as heir to the throne safe → Margaret + York were now enemies as she thought he wanted to exclude her son and take the throne for himself ---> she DISTRUSTED the city of London, believing it to hold Yorkist sympathies, so she set up her own court in COVENTRY where she surrounded herself w/ those loyal to the Lancastrian cause + the heirs of those who had died at St Albans → this court was completely HOSTILE to the Yorkists and the Nevilles and their aim was to bring them down.
5. York was once again made protector as the king's health was deteriorating → after the battle, the Nevilles and York took the king to a ceremonial crown wearing at St Paul's cathedral w/ York being the one to personally give Henry his crown → A SHOW OF DEFERENCE FROM A 'MOST LOYAL SUBJECT' → York wanted to make it clear that he was still loyal to the king and he had not been committing treason BUT had only been concerned w/ ridding the king of his bad advisers → officers were distributed among the victories Yorkists → YORK WAS MADE CONSTABLE OF ENGLAND, VISCOUNT BOURCHIER WAS MADE TREASURER + WARWICK WAS MADE CAPTAIN OF CALAIS.

Why did the Yorkists win at the first Battle at St Albans?

* the king's forces were outnumbered by York's
* York clearly held military power though good judgement and good fortune
* the king and his banner were not in open view so the royal forces didn't have a psychological advantage over the rebel opponents.
* a battle in a town meant that the royal forces were scattered and not in a tightly controlled and mutually supportive unit.
* the king's defences were unprepared and uncoordinated → it only showed the military weakness of the royal forces and that the leadership of DoB had serious defects.
* the DoB's decision not to fight in an open field suggests that the royal forces were short of archers while the Yorkists were strong w/ archers
* those archers found that the hemmed-in royal forces were easy targets.

What military and political advantages did each side have after the battle?

YORKIST ADVANTAGE:

* York was made Constable of England.
* Yorkist party pardoned by parliament + Somerset blamed by St Albans.
* Salisbury and Warwick got key political roles.

LANCASTRIAN ADVANTAGE:

* York didn't have as much freedom as before as the king was very much present.
* York's protectorship ended on 25th February 1456
* in 1457, the new council of the Prince of Wales took formal control of his birthright, and all members were STAUNCH LANCASTRIANS → included: HUMPHREY STAFFORD, son and heir of the DoB, the EARLS OF SHREWSBURY + WILTSHIRE, VISCOUNT BEAUMONT + LORDS DUDLEY + STANLEY.
* queen opposed York
* the nobility was still committed to Henry VI → they repeatedly pledged alliance 
* York had very little support from the gov. or amongst the nobility.

Explain the significance of August 1456?

* the king joined the queen at Kenilworth which meant that she could now exert control over him and importantly take command of royal appointments, placing her own supporters in positions of authority in place of York's men.
* she made, for example Lawrence Booth Keeper of the Pricy Seal in September 1456.
* the fact that the king moved from Westminster where he was influenced by York to Kenilworth where he was influenced by the queen caused the shift in the balance of power in the queen's favour.

Explain how queen Margaret was able to win over neutral and former Yorkist lords to her side in 1457-8?

* the queen's next move was to persuade those nobles who hadn't committed to the side or another to support her.
* the Earls of Shrewsbury and Pembroke who'd both supported York's protectorate were brought to the Lancastrian side w/ the former having had a favourable marriage arranged between his heir + the DoB's daughter
* Buckingham's second son, SIR HENRY STAFFORD had a marriage arranged for him w/ Margaret Beaufort leading to Buckingham becoming increasingly identified w/ the queen's party + moving away from his position of neutrality.

When was the battle of Blore Health

September 1459

What happened at the battle of Blore Heath

*  least important battle + wasn't decisive in any way shape or form.
* Yorkist army led by Salisbur
* Lancastrian army led by Lord Audley
* the Yorkists pretended to 'retreat' but then CHARGED w/ cavalry → long bowmen highly effective, impact + speed
* the horses stopped at the ditch, therefore impact was LOST
* hand to hand conflict begins + LORD AUDLEY KILLED!
* Lancastrian army scatters, although 2 of Salisbury's men were captured by Lancastrians.
* YORKIST VICTORY!!!

What was the consequences of Blore Heath?

* after Blore Heath, YORK, WARWICK AND SALISBURY had a meeting
* Margaret of Anjou had given a peace offering to ONLY York + Warwick to hand themselves over but NOT Salisbury as he'd already fought.
* York + Warwick + Salisbury had all signed AGREEMENT + FORMED AN ALLIANCE (they would all stick together)
* they issued their first manifesto → targeted EVIL ADVISORS + QUEEN.

When was the Battle of Ledford Bridge

1459

What happened at Ludford Bridge in 1459?

* NO battle → 'ROUT' (one-sided), HOWEVER → was the FIRST BIG BATTLE OF THE WoRs
* began w/ a STANDOFF (Y one side and L other side)
* Lancastrians dressed Henry in magnificent clothes + paraded him on the bridge → PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE!!!
* Yorkist forces were limited in size + not much support → less than 10,000, compared to queen's army which was 20,000 strong. 
* York brought the CALAIS GARRISON led by ANDREW TROLLOPE (best Lancastrian commander) → professional army, HOWEVER → they SWITCHED SIDES to the Lancastrians!!!
* Yorkist defeated + FLED → York fled to IRELAND → Warwick fled to CALAIS

What were the Parliament of the Devils?

* held in Coventry by Anjou
* Yorkists lords ALL attainted →stripped of land + titles as well as their OFFSPRINGS (Act of Accord)
* mixed reactions → Norfolk thought it was VINDICTIVE + NASTY

What was the argument of ‘Somnium Vigilantis’?

* ‘dream of the vigilant’
* paints Yorkist as baddies
* Lancastrian equivalent of manifesto → response to the Yorkist position → only god could make good judgement

What is the significance of Calais?

* home of Calais garrison
* home of the wool staple → England’s major export + lots of money
* impregnable → heavily fortified town + harbour
* ideal base for piracy → Warwick was an excellent pirate
* Anjou was meant to pay Calais garrison but stopped since Warwick was there, but → he offered to pay instead

When was the Battle of Northampton?

1460

What happened at the Battle of Northampton in 1460?

* most important battle in whole of the conflict
* resounding YORKIST VICTORY
* queen is not there, only the evil councillors (Beaumont, Wiltshire and Shrewsbury)
* Lancastrian = LARGE ARMY, lot of ARTILLERY, eg - cannons, set up well defended enclosure, made sure they displayed the Kings banner
* Yorkists advanced + attacked kings flag → had POPE + BISHOP on their side → he even said a prayer before the battle.
* weather was awful → storm and rain → all the Lancastrian artillery failed + couldn't work in the rain.

What were the consequences of Northampton?

* the evil councillors → SHREWSBURY, BEAUMONT etc were all DEAD.
* Henry was taken CAPTIVE by Yorkists → given a victory parade + made 'king of honour' → dressed him in nice clothes etc.
* York was in Ireland + Somerset + Northumberland + Queen NOT in attendance.
* after battle, York marches to London + CLAIMS THE THRONE!

What was Warwick’s reaction to York claiming the throne according to AJ Pollard?

* that Warwick must have known + they’d agree to go for the throne
* Warwick ‘shock’ was false + fake → must have known
* provides compelling evidence that Warwick knew about York’s claim

What was Warwick's reaction to York claiming the throne according to Michael Hicks?

* opposite to Pollard
* Warwick was in fact ‘shocked’ genuinely
* However → not completely disagreeing with Pollard

What was the Act of the Accord?

* parliament produced compromise → York becomes Protector for 3rd time → in charge more than Henry
* When Henry VI died, York would become king (depose him), BUT York is older, therefore he could DIE first + never become king
* Henry has been on the throne for 38 years → very established + most of the population only known him
* also rumours that Prince Edward was ANJOU = SOMERSET’S SON (affair) → Henry was not ‘legitimate king’
* Anjou wouldn’t accept the Act → wants to fight for her son’s right

When was the Battle of Wakefield?

1460

What happened during the Battle of Wakefield in 1460?

* no eyewitness account of this battle → not well recorded.
* CATACLYSMIC for the Yorkist house → major loss!!!
* Lancastrians pretended to dress as Warwick's men + manipulated York into coming out → HOWEVER → Salisbury (Warwick's dad) was in the castle w/ York so he would've known Warwicks men → most 'DETAILED' story we have → ANDREW TROLLOPE = mastermind behind the trick
* York was tricked into bringing his force out → surrounded by the Lancastrian army → YORK + SALISBURY KILLED → York's head chopped off → then displayed on a spike over the City of York w/ a paper crown to mock his claim to the throne
* SILLY ERROR made by York → why did he leave a fortified/safe area → MILITARILY makes no sense 
* PROFOUND IMPACT

What happened during the Battle of Mortimer’s Cross in 1461?

* brutal battle → hand to hand fighting, BUT → not really decisive in any way.
* EDWARD, EARL OF MARCH (future king of England) → raised 5-6K men + 18 years old at the time
* PARHELIA → rare event, Edward sees it as a religious sign ---> 'DIVINE PROVINENCE'
* Edward makes a 'landmark' SPEECH → instills confidence and hope into his men.
* Edward captures OWEN TUDOR → Lancastrian leader + chops his head off.

Why was Margaret’s army ‘badly behaved’

* Margaret’s army is often said to have been badly behaved on its march South on London after victory at Wakefield → this is considered one of the reasons why London closed its gates and did not let them in
* this is NOT entirely TRUE → she was always this portrayed as vindictive and cruel ssh she might have influenced her army to act liek

What happened at the 2nd Battle of St Albans?

* Lancastrian victory!
* the ‘decisive showdown’
* Warwick came first and set up defences → caltrops → had 16-17k men including BURGUNDIANS
* BUT; Warwick didn’t know Margaret and her army were heading BEHIND his army → TOOK HIM BY COMPLETE SURPRISE
* he decided to move his army away from St Albans → didnt lose man men
* amidst the chaos, the Yorkists forgot about Henry → so two Yorkist sympathisers → LORD BONVILLE + THOMAS KYRIEL stayed back and ‘protected’ the king → however → prince Edward (8 years) ordered for them to have their heads chopped off!

Why was it hard for Margaret and Henry to get into London in Feb 1461?

* this was a PIVOTAL MOMENT → London was heavily fortified, lots of defences and cannons.
* the mayor and aldermen were in a DIFFICULT POSITION → couldn't really say no → the negotiations + delay gave time for Edward to march into London.
* the ordinary people were SCARED to let Margaret etc in
* eg → when the mayor gave instructions for some carts to be loaded w/ bread, victuals and money for the Lancastrians → the COMMONERS all ate it → created RIOTS → London authorities had lost control of its people and city.
* Margaret grew IMPATIENT + ANNOYED → she ordered her army back to Dunstable.

How did Edward become king in 1461?

* arranged mostly by the Neville family.
* consisted of 3-4 thousand people drawn from the City of London and the Yorkist army.
* George Neville, Bishop of Exeter, Chancellor of England + brother to Warwick made his speech to the crowd outlining the crimes of HENRY VI (including breaking the Act of Accord) → \n went off w/ Lancastrians after 2nd Battle of St Albans the murder of York + putting forward Edward's superior claim to the throne through the Mortimer line.
* Edward was ACCLAIMED KING by the crowd → was important bc it provided public recognition of Edward's right title.
* on Tuesday 3rd March a council of nobles and bishops at BAYNARD'S CASTLE the London home of the Yorkists to confirm Edward's CLAIM → v. small gathering w/ few in attendance.
* on Wednesday 4th March, Edward was met by crowds at St Paul's Cathedral + went on a procession around London → NOT a coronation (partial coronation, holy oil only later on) → more of a religious service in Westminster Abbey → LOOKED LIKE HE'D BECOME KINGN BY POPULAR DEMAND RATHER THAN DEPOSING HENRY VI.
* by 6th March he was behaving as King → he issued proclamations to the sheriffs of 33 counties ordering them not to aid the Lancastrian rebels in the North → Edward now represented legitimate political authority.

What happened at the Battle of Towton?

* Henry VI and Margaret not present 
* biggest battle fought on English soil → most decisive battle + 20K killed + v. bloody → huge supporters on both sides → Lancastrian army was bigger.
* Edward + Norfolk (half a days march behind E) both marching to Towton.
* small SKIRMISH en route → 'battle of Ferrybridge' → Edward orders FITZWALTER to take control of bridge → HOWEVER → Lancastrians destroys it, BUT Fitzwalter fixes it → then Lancastrian attacks F's men in the night + breaks bridge for a 2nd time.
* LORD FAUCONBERG (Yorkist) heads to Castleford and waits across the river → shoots arrows at Clifford's army (Lancastrian) + wipes them out.

Why did the Yorkists win?

* the Yorkist had a excellent military commander, who led them to victory → WILLIAM, LORD FAUCONBERG (Warwick's uncle)
* Duke of Norfolk's arrival in the last 2 hours of the battle gave the Yorkists victory as they had FRESH TROOPS → before then it was stalemate + indecisive
* the Lancastrians had NO LEADERSHIP STRUCTURE as they had no king and only Dukes.
* the weather = snowy + windy → Lancastrians started on a hilltop + held high ground → they couldn't see properly + their arrows fell short, THEREFORE Yorkists were UNHARMED → Fauconberg ordered Yorkists to fire back Lancastrian arrows as win was BEHIND them.
* Edward was INSPIRATIONAL + inspired confidence → had ROYAL HERALDRY → Lancastrians had no king to look up to → low morale and confidence.
* Yorkist towns were damaged on the march → fuelled ANGER w/in them.

What was the new regime under Edward IV?

* when Edward obtained the throne in 1461, he was only 19 + INEXPERIENCED.
* he needed to widen the basis of his support amongst the nobility and ensure that trusted men governed the regions of England → he tried to WIN OVER HIS ENEMIES + even tried to END blood feuds between York and Somerset's families.
* he began by attempting to heal the rifts w/ SWORN ENEMIES → HENRY BEAUFORT, DUKE OF SOMERSET was pardoned in 1463 → he got his titles RESTORED, lands of revenues and was granted an annuity of £220 → ALSO made Captain of the king's bodyguard and granted a place as a close companion of the king → Edward went to GREAT lengths to make him his friend by giving him so many rewards → ULTIMATELY, Somerset rejoined the Lancastrian rebels in 1464.
* other Lancastrians were similarly pardoned and then BETRAYED Edward → Sir Ralph Percy, Sir Ralph Grey and de Vere Earls of Oxford.
* many Lancastrian nobles + gentry were attainted + this provided the new king w/ the a lot of PATRONAGE (lands + offices) to hand out → this enabled him to both reward his supporters and build political support!!
* a NEW Yorkist nobility was created from amongst the gentry who'd served the family of York:
* SIR WILLIAM HASTINGS was created William LORD Hastings and given the lands of Viscount Beaumont in Leicestershire + also appointed to several important offices including the King's chamberlain → he ran the EAST MIDLANDS.
* SIR WILLIAM HERBERT was promoted to the nobility and appointed chief justice and CHAMBERLAIN OF SOUTH WALES → eventually created EARL OF PEMBROKE in place of the attainted JASPER TUDOR → Herbert ran Wales
* SIR HUMPHREY STAFFORD was created LORD Stafford + received lands in the WEST COUNTRY → eventually created EARL OF DEVON → ran the West Country (DEVON + CORNWALL) for the King.
* these were ALL brand NEW promotions and had NEVER been created until NOW.

What was the significance of the Neville family in 1491?

* WILLIAM NEVILLE, LORD FAUCONBERG (Warwick's uncle + commanded Yorkist army at Towton)
* RICHARD NEVILLE, EARL OF WARWICK (Edward's right hand man)
* JOHN NEVILLE, LORD MONTAGUE (Warwick's brother)
* GEORGE NEVILLE, ARCHBISHOP OF YORK (Warwick's YOUNGER brother + important in the church)
* Edward didn't want to give a lot of power to them as it could create JEALOUSY + might overturn Edward + FAVOURITISM as well

What rewards were given to the Neville family after 1461?

* Grants to Warwick (for reward and continued service) → he received a whole host of offices including the GREAT CHAMBERLAINSHIP OF ENGLAND + THE CONSTABLESHIP OF DOVER CASTLE + WARDENSHIP OF THE CINQUE PORTS (5 most important trading ports in the South of England) w/ a fee of £300. He also received a large number of lands including 8 former PERCY MANORS in the North (Percy's had been ATTAINTED + wiped off the map)
* Grants to other members of the Neville family → Warwick's BROTHER was created LORD MONTAGUE and replaced the Percy family as earls of NORTHUMBERLAND, receiving most of the former Percy lands → Warwick's UNCLE was promoted to EARL OF KENT and given the lands of the Earls of Devon and Wiltshire → Warwick's YOUNGER BROTHER was made Archbishop of York and Chancellor of England (KEY GOVERNMENT JOB!!!)
* the Nevilles got key substantial + rewards → collectively the most POWERFUL family of England by far.

What happened during the war in the North 1462-64

‘GORILLA WAR’

PHASE 1:

* Margaret of Anjou negotiated the TREATY OF CHINON w/ Louis XI of France in June 1462 which agreed that the French would provide military support to fight the Yorkists in return for the surrender of Calais after the conflict was over → Louis provided 800 men which landed at Bamburgh Castle in Northumberland in October 1462
* the castles of Bamburgh, Dunstanburgh and Alnwick immediately surrendered to the Lancastrian force → Edward raised a STRONG ARMY and led them North to deal w/ the problem but was forced to stop at Durham due to measles.
* Warwick continued to lead the army NORTH and Margaret and the leader of the French army fled to Scotland as they were unable to meet Warwick in open battle → Lancastrian garrison were lift in all 3 castles and Warwick laid siege to them over the winter between 1462-63 until they all surrendered leaving the Yorkists in control of Northumbria once again. 

PHASE 2:

* Edward IV left the Northern castles in the hands of the FORMER Lancastrians Sir Ralph Percy and Sir Ralph Grey as he believed that their northern connections would help them to control the region → BUT by April 1463 Percy had handed Bamburgh and Dunstanburgh over to the Lancastrians and changed sides and Grey had done the same at Alnwick.
* at around the same time, JAMES III OF SCOTLAND + Anjou led an invasion force over the Scottish border → Edward IV now obtained a grant of Parliamentary taxation to fight the Scots in person + marched North → BUT he was DETAINED at Northampton when a mob tried to LYNCH Somerset → it was left to Warwick and Montague to confront the Scots at Norham and chase them back over the border → the NORTHERN castles stayed in LANCASTRIAN HANDS.

PHASE 3:

* Edward now worked to DIPLOMATICALLY ISOLATE the Lancastrians → in October 1463 he signed an agreement w/ France in which Louis XI promised not to aid the Lancastrians → in December 1463 he also agreed a TRUCE w/ the scots and sent Montague North to negotiate a permanent deal → on his way north, he ran into a Lancastrian army led by SOMERSET, who'd BETRAYED Edward and fled North
* a battle was fought at HEDGELEY MOOR on 25th April 1464 where the Lancastrians were defeated and Percy was KILLED → Somerset escaped and began to RAISE a new force at Tyndale → 15th May: Montague tracked this new force down and fought a battle w/ them at Hexham where SOMERSET WAS KILLED and the Lancastrians DEFEATED (end of Somerset) → the castles of Alnwick and Dunstanburgh surrendered quickly BUT a siege was needed at Bamburgh where Gray refused to surrender → the castle eventually fell to ARTILLERY FIRE and Gray was executed!
* Henry was eventually captured in 1465 and taken to the TOWER OF LONDON whilst Margaret and her son Prince Edward went into exile in France.

What happened in the capture of Henry VI in 1465?

* JULY 1456: Henry was captured at Waddington Hall in Lancashire and was brought South to the village of Islington where Warwick formally took possession of him → he was then subjected to HUMILIATION which took the form of a procession through the ceremonial streets of London.
* Warwick wanted to look better than Edward → that he's the better leader → he was the one who'd devised the plan + captured Henry.

What was the Lancastrian opposition after Towton 1461-64?

EDWARD IV RESPONSIBLE FOR DEALING W/ RESISTANCE (political, diplomatic role, THEREFORE - raising taxes etc, LESS VISIBLE):

* Edward led a strong army towards the North as Maggie was incoming, however got MEASLES.
* he left the northern castles in the hands of Sir Ralph Percy + Sir Ralph Gray.
* E worked to diplomatically isolate the Lancastrians.
* he obtained grant of parliamentary taxation to fight the scots.

THE NEVILLES WERE RESPONSIBLE FOR DEALIGN W/ RESISTANCE (far more practical, visible role: battle, sieges, humiliating parades):

* W's brother - Montague took charge @ the battle of Hedgeley Moor leading the Yorkists to victory.
* Montague played a role in the death of Somerset.
* W's visibly organised Henry's humiliation, through the streets through London.

What problems did Edward VI face when he first became king?

* expectations were HIGH → Yorkism had used popular manifestos to criticise Lancastrian gov. on LAW + ORDER (declined sig.) and corruption → but after many years of weak rule under Henry VI in addition to 3 years of CW the country was LAWLESS w/ particular disturbances such as Wales linked to Lancastrianism → COUNTRY WAS IN SHAMBLES!!! 
* FINANCES was a MESS → E's war debt to London totalled £12,000 and the crown owed the Calais garrison £37,000 in BACK PAY → at the same time real REVENUE had fallen to less than £24,000 per year in the last 5 years of Henry's reign as to £90,000 under Henry → THEREFORE, the Calais garrison was on the verge of handing back Calais back to France.

Who was Elizabeth Woodville and what was her significance?

* E and Elizabeth had allegedly met when Elizabeth was walking in the woods w/ her 2 sons (Thomas and Richard) when she stumbles upon Edward and his men riding → apparently Edward was besotted by her beauty straight away.
* Elizabeth's previous husband (Sir John Grey, a GENTRY) was killed fighting for the Lancastrian cause then was attainted and stripped off titles and lands.
* 30th April 1464: E spent the night at Stoney Stratford whilst travelling North to deal w/ Lancastrian resistance → he slipped away from his men in the night and rode to the home of RICHARD WOODVILLE, LORD RIVERS and in the presence of his wife JACQUETTA OF LUXEMBERG, married their daughter ELIZABETH WOODVILLE.
* news of this marriage did not break until OCTOBER 1464!!!
* it was unusual for kings to marry their own subjects → SCANDALOUS!
* E's mother didn't even go to the coronation → super disgusted and prepared to support her younger son's claim to the throne.

What were the problems with the marriage between Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville?

* it upset the LORDS bc E didn't seek their advice on such an important issue!
* may have embarrassed and upset Warwick who'd been trying to negotiate a French marriage on E's behalf w/ Louis XI's sister BONA OF SAVOY → E STILL made Warwick go to France and deal w/ negotiations.
* when Warwick found out about the secret marriage he was HUMILIATED and he looked like a FOOL.
* an important TOOL of DIPLOMACY had been lost and the marriage lacked PRESTIGE → Elizabeth was not seen as being fit to be a king's wife.

What were the Woodville marriages?

* MARGARET WOODVILLE married THOMAS LORD MALTRAVERS, son and heir of the Earl of Arundel
* JOHN WOODVILLE married KATHERINE NEVILLE, dowager Duchess of Norfolk (he was 20 and she was 65!!!!!)
* KATHERINE WOODVILLE married HENRY STAFFORD, heir of the Duke of Buckingham
* ANNE WOODVILLE married WILLIAM VISCOUNT BOURCHIER, heir of the earl of Essex
* ELEANOR WOODVILLE married ANTHONY GREY, son and heir of the Earl of Kent
* MARY WOODVILLE married WILLIAM HERBERT
* THOMAS WOODVILLE married ANNE HOLLAND, daughter and heir of the Duke of Exeter

Why was Warwick offended by the Woodville marriages?

* the rise of the Woodville's may have offended Warwick as the Woodville marriages DEPRIVED him of NOBLE HEIRS for his 2 daughters ISABEL + ANNE → he wanted his daughters to marry into 2 families w/ the same social status level.
* but, more IMPORTANTLY, Richard, Earl Rivers (Queen's father) was made TREASURER OF ENGLAND in 1466 and became the centre of a new COURT FACTION creating COMPETITION for Warwick.

Why did the public heavily dislike the Woodvilles?

* as well as taking most of the noble heirs and Elizabeth not being of status and wealth, the Woodville's gained even more unpopularity through **'The Cook Affair'.**
* Sir Thomas Cook, a wealthy London merchant played a key role in getting the city to grant Edward the loans that had supported his government ever since he ascended to the throne → when Edward's father-in-law, Lord Rivers, head of counterintelligence, tortured a messenger named Cornelius by burning the soles of his feet with hot irons in 1468, he was revealed to be a member of a secret network of supporters of the Lancastrians → Cook was CHARGED with discussing the prospect of lending them money with Lancastrian agents
* Cook was found guilty of misprision for failing to disclose a King assassination plot → before finally receiving a royal pardon in July, he was fined 8,000 marks, spent a brief time in jail, and suffered other penalties → HOWEVER, the entire situation was embarrassing for the King and in particular the Queen's family.
* The confessions had been gained through TORTURE by Rivers and his deputy Fogge and the fine was huge, at a time when everybody knew that the king was short of money → moreover, the king had ordered Rivers to extract it from Cook's property whilst the merchant was in prison
* Rivers TRASHED his townhouse, drank his cellar dry and carried off valuable jewels and plate!!!

Why else was Warwick unhappy?

* WILLIAM HERBERT: former retainer of Warwick in Wales → Warwick RESENTED Herbert's rise to a position of influence w/ the king as Earl of Pembroke that rivalled his own → W had always wanted influence in Wales ( eg - feud w/ Somerset) but now this area was given to Herbert → they both FELL OUT over the lordship of Newport.
* the marriage of Herbert's son and heir to Mary Woodville, the created an alliance between the Woodville's and Herbert → accompanying the marriage was a ROYAL GRANT of the LORDSHIP OF DUNSTER in Somerset, a Lordship that Warwick had LONG had his eye on.
* Warwick wanted to marry his daughter ISABEL to Edward's brother GEORGE, DUKE OF CLARENCE, but Edward had said NO.
* 1467: E SACKED W's bro - GEORGE NEVILLE as Chancellor of England → suggests that E was trying to assert his independence from Warwick → it was a POLITICAL MESSAGE warning that W was in charge of FOREIGN POLICY and that Warwick should STOP PUSHING from a French ALLIANCE over E's favoured BURGUNDIAN PARTNERSHIP.

Who was George, Duke of Clarence and why was he unhappy?

* George was Edward's OLDEST brother.
* he was created DUKE OF CLARENCE at just 12 after E's coronation in 1461.
* 1465: E granted Clarence his own landed estates for the first time in the North and West country → these grants were worth £3,666 per annum + would make him the one of the wealthiest noblemen in the country after Warwick!!!
* amongst the titles given to Clarence was the EARLDOM OF RICHMOND which had belonged to HENRY TUDOR before his family had been ATTAINTED for LANCASTRIAN allegiances → Henry, himself still a child was given to WILLIAM HERBERT in WARDSHIP and Herbert planned to marry Tudor to one of his daughters + would probably eventually try to convince E to OVERTURN the attainder, restoring Tudor and DEPRIVE CLARENCE.
* Clarence wanted to marry ISABEL NEVILLE as she was W's daughter and co-heir → she would eventually bring to his family much of W's vast estates and these inherited lands could not be taken away, unlike the lands he currently held → Clarence was CLOSER to W as he lived w/ him since the age of 7 → W is more like a FATHER FIGURE to him.

What was the breach with Warwick on foreign policy?

* summer 1465: Duke of BRITTANY + BURGUNDY had both rebelled against Louis XI, King of France (their overlord)
* Burgundy w/ Brittany + Louis XI of France both wanted English help in this conflict → this gave E options in FOREIGN POLICY.
* 1466: Warwick was initially given the job of NEGOTIATING w/ both parties to see what was an offer → BUT he did not get on w/ Charles, heir to the DUKEDOM OF BURGUNDY + his negotiations w/ that the party did not go well → he got on BETTER at the French court where he already had contacts.
* May 1467: E empowered EMBASSIES to negotiate w/ France + Burgundy at the same time → W led the French negotiations + Earl Rivers backed talks w/ Burgundy.
* June 1467: tournament between Anthony Lord Scales + the Bastard of Burgundy at Westminster was a BIG SUCCESS + furthered diplomatic relations w/ Burgundy.
* end of June: Duke Philip of Burgundy had DIED leaving his son CHARLES (who had good relations w/ the English) as the new Duke → W returned to England w/ a French embassy, but these were IGNORED by Edward!!!
* September: the TRADE WAR between England + Burgundy had been ENDED + an alliance agreed (BURGUNDY WAS ENGLAND'S MOST IMPORTANT CLOTH MARKET) → E's sis MARGARET OF YORK was to marry Duke Charles the Bold
* Feb 1468: treaty was FINALISED → HOWEVER Margaret's DOWRY was to cost £41,666 - an EXTORTIONATE SUM equal to the yearly income of England (E could NOT afford this + he was already bankrupt) → W's deal w/ France had been BETTER.
* E had PLAYED France against Burgundy to his advantage but he had also played W against Rivers → WARWICK HAD LOST AND WAS NOT HAPPY!!! → E completely ignored Warwick.

How far was the Woodville marriage responsible for Warwick and Clarence’s break with Edward?

WOODVILLE MARRIAGE:

* E married w/out consulting W in the first place
* W was also humiliated as he'd been negotiating a deal w/ Louis XI for a marriage between E and his sister Bona of Savoy but E was already married.
* due to Elizabeth's numerous siblings, E had to promote all of them and marry them off → left W w/ no one for his daughters to marry → W was deeply offended by the marriage between E's bro (20) and W's aunt (65).

THE OTHER FACTORS:

* William Herbert Earl of Pembroke was in the process of marrying his daughters to attainted Lancastrians Henry Tudor and Henry Percy → this would mean the Nevilles returning sig. lands to them after Towton.
* Clarence grew up in W's household so she was naturally closer to Isabel (W's daughter) → Clarence wanted to marry her, but E didn't let him → ALSO if E never had a child, Clarence would automatically become King, making Isabel queen.
* E sacked W's bro - George in 1467 → E trying to establish his independence.
* Herbert had took lands in Wales → particularly the Lordship of Newport.
* W wanted England to make an alliance w/ France + Rivers w/ Burgundy → E chose Rivers → W had lost all connections w/ E.

BOTH:

* PROMOTION of Lord Rivers → made an Earl → becomes W's enemies → Lord Rivers was influencing E more.
* the deal w/ Burgundy was influenced by the fact that Jacquetta (Lizzy's mum) was of Burgundian ROYALTY.

What was Warwick’s rebellion in 1469?

* W withdrew to his estates in the North → there were rumours at the French court that he was plotting against E.
* E was aware of W's frustrations → he believed W's claim that he was not plotting and attempted to RECONCILE him w/ other Yorkist courtiers.
* Jan 1468: W accepted an invite to attend a council meeting at Coventry and was reconciled w/ Herbert but not Rivers or the Woodville's.
* 1468-9: W continued to attend councils and participate in gov. but this was a cover for PLOTTING.
* 1469: W and Clarence withdrew to Calais and C + Isabel were married in SECRET → everyone knew apart from E.
* despite their power, W and C couldn't challenge Edward IV on their own → no other nobles would BACK them as their feud w/ Edward was essentially private → they need to rely on E's general unpopularity w/ the commons and unfulfilled expectations to RAISE the force required to challenge E → they spread MANIFESTO'S to raise more men for armies ---> they blamed the 'evil councillors' (King, Woodville's and Herbert) → this was v DANGEROUS as they were blaming the King → TREASONOUS!!!

What was the general unpopularity of Edward IV

FINANCE:

* E had asked parliament TWICE for taxation to fund a foreign invasion and then DIDN'T go through w/ it → firstly in Scotland in 1463 then France in 1468.
* E was blamed for an ECONOMIC RECESSION, which DEEPENED in the 1460s + made worse by a trade war w/ Burgundy.
* E struggled to solve the crisis on royal debt → the calais garrison came close to mutiny when owed the sum of £37,000 in the 1460s.

LAW + ORDER:

* RIOTS in Kent against the rule of RIVER in 1468 → people believed that E's courtiers were allowed to rule CORRUPTLY (Rivers was a CRUEL landowner)
* law + order had never rlly improved under E and DETERIORATED further at the end of the 1460s, esp. in the NORTH + WALES.

What happened in Warwick’s FIRST rebellion in 1469

* the aim of W's first rebellion was to remove the 'evil councillors' from around the king + re-exert W's own control over him.
* July 1469: W + C issues a MANIFESTO from their base at Calais → it listed Earl Rivers, Lord Scales, Sir John Woodville, the earls of Pembroke + Devon + Lord Audley as EVIL COUNCILLORS that they wished to remove.
* the rebels largely SUCCEEDED in these objectives → PEMBROKE WAS KILLED at the battle of EDGECOTE (1469) + Rivers and John Woodville were HUNTED DOWN and killed in the forest of Dean.
* E himself was captured at Olney near Northampton when his supporters melted away after Edgecote.
* BUT, outbreaks of violence proved that England could not be governed w/out a king:
* in Gloucestershire the battle of Nibley Green took place between the Talbot and Berkeley families
* in Norfolk the Duke of Norfolk laid SIEGE to the Paston castle of Caister.
* Sir Humphrey Neville of Brancepeth led a pro Lancastrian rising in county Durham.
* W had NO CHOICE but to release E in September so that he could raise troops.

**WHY WAS THE DEFEAT E'S FAULT?**

* E went on a pilgrimage to Walsingham then Fotheringhay castle w/ Elizabeth → proves he WASN'T aware of anything and not bothered of the uprising of the North.
* when he finally decided to do something about this he summoned Herbert + Stafford to assemble their men → he could've written to many other nobles however he only chose his faves.

**WHY E'S MEN LOST AT THE BATTLE OF EDGECOTE:**

* based of a PETTY FIGHT when Pembroke and Devon fell out over sleeping arrangements → P was met w/ Redesdale's army when they attacked P's army → P's army was OUTNUMBERED + waiting for D to come → W's advanced army arrived to help Robin → D thought that W's whole army came and THEREFORE fled → Pembroke's army was defeated + he was executed and his was CHOPPED OFF.

**WHAT WERE IMMEDIATE CONSEQUENCES OF E'S DEFEAT?**

* E's own army deserted + he was captured as a prisoner → big outbreaks of violence → Herbert and Stafford executed.

**WHAT WERE W'S AIMS AFTER HE CAPTURED E + WHY DID THEY FAIL?**

* E was declared a BASTARD and give the crown to Clarence

What happened in Warwick SECOND rebellion in 1469?

* MARCH 1470: w/ the first rebellion failing, W launched a second rising w/ the AIM OF REPLACING E W/ HIS BROTHER GEORGE, DUKE OF CLARENCE → trouble started w/ a large uprising of the commons in Lincolnshire led by Sir Robert Wells.
* E assembled a strong force in London and marched NORTH to Stamford where he defeated the poorly organised and equipped rebels at 'LOSECOAT FIELD' → this time E raised all nobles (huge force) → he showed a completely diff. character, more active and dynamic.
* W and Clarence were simultaneously attempting to raise their own supporters in the west midlands, southwest and Richmondshire → HOWEVER a few were prepared to join a rebellion against the king and they were unsuccessful → NO ONE WANTED CLARENCE TO BE KING + NO ONE TRUSTED W'S MOTIVES!!!!
* E was again CONCILIATORY towards the ARCH REBELS and offered W + C fair treatment if they surrendered themselves by March 27th.
* HOWEVER, they fled to Exeter and then Calais where W's deputy lord Wenlock refused them entry → they then took REFUGE in France → the Calais garrison SHUT THEIR GATES as they sided w/ E → W + C lived w/ Louis XI, his ALLY.

What happened in Warwick THIRD rebellion in 1469?

* W's second rebellion FAILED bc NOBODY WANTED CLARENCE KING → he had no legitimate claim whilst E was still alive.
* MAY 1470: W + C agreed terms w/ the Lancastrians at Angers (France) and planned a JOINT INVASION w/ French funding.
* Prince Edward, the Lancastrian heir (MAGGIE OF ANJOU'S SON) was to marry W's daughter ANNE NEVILLE and this was the basis of the ALLIANCE → Louis XI of France helped to organise and fund the invasion of E that followed → Louis XI was a 'universal spider' and 'master thinker'.
* Lord FitzHugh raised the Richmondshire gentry in rebellion and drew E north enabling W and his Lancastrian allies (Oxford + Pembroke) to land in Dartmouth and Plymouth SAFELY on 13th September.
* this time the nobility DID turn out to support the rebels (esp. the OLD NOBILITY who'd received little from E - LORD STANLEY + EARL OF SHREWSBURY) → they met w/ W at Bristol.
* in contrast, v. FEW supported E - Herb + Staff were DEAD → as were the key members of the Woodville fam → only HASTINGS, his bro Richard + Anthony Woodville (new Lord Rivers) remained LOYAL.
* when W's brother - Montagu decided to take his troops over to the rebels, E was FORCED TO FLEE TO BURGUNDY.

What was Edward IV’s invasion of England in March 1471

* CHARLES THE BOLD, Duke of Burgundy (completely ignored E at first + no interest in helping him) supplied him w/ 50,00 FLORINS (£20,000) + 3 or 4 Dutch ships were fitted out for him.
* he received a further 14 ships from the Hansards.
* the force that sailed on 11th March consisted of 36 ships and about 1,200 men including firearms.
* they had planned to land in East Anglia where they hoped to receive support from the DUKE OF NORFOLK but he was in PRISON forcing them further North (W had prisoned in ToL + had anticipated this would happen --> CLEVER) ---> after a STORM had scattered the fleet, it eventually landed at Ravenspur (HOSTILE COUNTY) on 14th March 1471.
* E turned away from HULL (anti-Yorkist) + permitted into York w/out his army → he then moved to his family castle at Wakefield ---> he didn't receive much support anywhere (even from his own estates) → HOWEVER MONTAGU + PERCY DID NOT STOP HIM!!!
* Montague allowed E to pass as the Yorkist army → though SMALL + well-armed + determined, Montague found it difficult to raise men → E came back to claim the title of DUKE OF YORK and not the Crown.- Percy actively made it hard for Montague to raise men → Percy helped E by doing NOTHING → couldn't get his own men to help E as they hated E after Towton.

What happened on Edward IV’s march in March/April 1471

* as E moved South into the midlands his supporters began to show → at Nottingham he was joined by 600 men from Lancashire under SIR WILLIAM PARR + JAMES HARRINGTON → at Leicester he was joined by 3000 men loyal to HASTINGS (BFF of E, rlly significant)
* the DUKE OF EXETER, the EARL OF OXFORD + WILLIAM VISCOUNT BEAUMONT were at Newark and W was at Coventry → Montague who had finally raised a force, was marching south after E → E marched on Coventry but W refused to come out and fight.
* Clarence had been recruiting in the west country but as he marched North to meet W in the midlands, HE DEFECTED TO E AND JOINED HIS ARMY ON APRIL 13TH!
* E then marched on London and entered the capital unopposed by citizens → he was reunited w/ his wife and took possession of Henry VI → now he had the capital + was joined by other supporters including JOHN LORD HOWARD + HUMPHREY BOURCHIER LORD CROMWELL.
* meanwhile, MONTAGUE, EXTER, OXFORD + BEAUMONT had joined W and the combined army marched south to give BATTLE.
* E moved his army NORTH to meet them at Barnet on Easter Sunday (14th April) and a MAJOR DECISIVE BATTLE WAS FOUGHT

What happened at the Battle of Barnet on 14th April 1471?

* VERY THICK FOG, which affected the soldiers as they couldn't really see their opponents.
* HASTINGS (E's side) fled as Oxford (W's side) found a way round + tried to attack → Oxford chased Hastings all the way to London.
* due to MISALIGNMENT, battle rotated 360 degrees so all the positioning switched round.
* Exeter thought that Oxford was Edward + they started attacking each other → W's men had mistaken Oxford's badge 'star of streams' for E's 'SUN of streams' + ATTACKED \n → people may have believed that Oxford didn't fully trust W as O was a Lancastrian and W was still a Yorkist, therefore O probably thought W betrayed him → Oxford escaped to Scotland + Exeter was captured + imprisoned in ToL.
* WARWICK + MONTAGUE BOTH KILLED!

What happened at the Battle of Tewksbury, 4th May 1471?

* Maggie of Anjou + Prince Edward landed at Weymouth on 14th April (day of Barnet) and supported by Somerset and John Courtenay (heir of Devon) raised Devon and Cornwall for the Lancastrian cause → they also received men and artillery from Bristol before marching North to join w/ Jasper Tudor and his welsh supporters.
* the Yorkists had used LEFTOVER ARTILLERY from Barnet (which W had used)
* this time it was SOMERSET, WENLOCK, DEVON vs GLOUCESTER, EDWARD IV + HASTINGS (same as Barnet).
* Somerset weaved though the battlefield and took E by surprise.
* E had sent 200 spearmen to attack Somerset and Somerset's army fled + were SLAUGHTERED → Somerset was beheaded the next day.
* DEVON + WENLOCK WERE KILLED → historians believe that Somerset killed Wenlock as he didn't move/fight when he was meant too → possibly did it out of anger?
* PRINCE EDWARD, ANJOU'S SON WAS BRUTALLY MURDERED!!! → the Yorkists chased Maggie + was captured and paraded through London → she was then taken back to France → END OF HER CAREER

Why was Edward able to regain his throne in 1471?

MILITARY:

* Barnet: thick fog → Hastings fled + Oxford chased him, battle rotated → Exeter thought Oxford was E so started fighting each other → W + Montague killed.
* Tewkesbury: Yorkists used left over artillery, Somerset weaved through the battlefield + took E bu surprise → Devon + Wenlock killed → Edward of Lancaster brutally murdered → Maggie of Anjou went back to France.

POLITICAL FACTORS:

* Percy prevented Montague from attacking E, when he came back to England → if Henry stayed on the throne, Montague would've got Percy's lands.
* Lord Shrewsbury + Lord Stanley waited to see how the events played out BEFORE making a final decision on what side they'd be on.
* E came back claiming to take back the title of 'Duke of York'.
* Lancastrians → Oxford, Beaumont, Exeter didn't FULLY TRUST W.
* Clarence SWITCHING SIDES!!!!

FOREIGN FACTORS:

* one factor was that the possibility of WAR that England would declare upon BURGUNDY → when the calais garrison ordered attacks on Burgundian land, the Duke of Burgundy gave in and granted E IV £20,000 on 31st December 1470.

Why did Clarence change sides and rejoin his brother?

* in 1465, E granted Clarence his own landed estates for the first time in the north and the west country → these grants were worth £3,666 per annum and would make him one one the wealthiest noblemen in the country after Warwick → amongst the titles given to him was the EARLDOM OF RICHMOND → which had belonged to HENRY TUDOR before his family had been attainted for Lancastrian allegiances.
* Clarence felt that he was HATED by the Lancastrians + he was about to lose his title of EARLDOM OF RICHMOND

What marked the second of the House of Lancaster in 1471?

* ALL dead or in captivity
* HENRY VI → put to death secretly in ToL on 21st May 1471, the day that Edward IV returned to London after Tewksbury.
* EDWARD OF LANCASTER → killed fleeing the battlefield in Tewksbury on 4th May 1471
* MARGARET OF ANJOU → escaped Tewksbury but was captured in the following days and parades through London in a cart as part of Edward IV's victory celebrations → she was sold to Louis XI of France and died in poverty in 1482.
* after the destruction of the Lancastrian royal family there was little point in continued opposition to Edward IV → everyone who supported the Lancastrians swapped to the Yorkist side → eg: Chief Justice Sir John Fortescue had been in exile w/ Margaret in France 1464-1471 + had written an advice manual for Prince Edward on how to govern once he became king → HOWEVER after 1471, he made his peace w/ E and REDIRECTED his manual him.
* JOHN DE VERE, EARL OF OXFORD → who'd seen BOTH his father and older brother executed by E in 1462 continued to actively carry on RESISTANCE on E.

What was the opposition of Earl of Oxford to EDWARD IV?

* he made raids on the marches of Calais in early 1472, apparently w/ encouragement from some prominent individuals in England, including GEORGE NEVILLE, ARCHBISHOP OF YORK (W and Montague's last surviving brother).
* this support resulted in an arrest for TREASON on 26th April 1472 → he was imprisoned in Hammes Castle and his immense treasure of at least £20,000 was seized.
* despite this setback, the Earl of Oxford continued plotting w/ Louis XI and he attempted a landing at St Osyth in Essex on 28th May 1473 → the Earl of Essex and the LORDS DYNHAM + DURAS prevented a successful landing, leading Oxford to spend the next few months causing trouble for other ships in the Channel.
* September 1473: Oxford changed tactics and turned his fleet to Cornwall, capturing ST MICHAEL'S MOUNT → impregnable + difficult to attack!
* SIR JOHN ARUNDELL + SIR HENRY BODRUGAN were called upon to deal w/ the Earl of Oxford, but Arundell DIED suddenly at the end of the year leading Bodrugan to manage the situation on his own → BUT it was quickly revealed that Bodrugan had sympathies for the Earl of Oxford and had given him supplies to last 6 months.
* December 1473: Bodrugan was replaced w/ JOHN FORTESCUE, Sheriff of Cornwall who was FAR MORE effective → not only did he engage the garrison in periods of fighting, but also managed to negotiate deals w/ all those would desert Oxford → as the garrison crumbled, Oxford surrendered on 15th Feb 1474 + he was sent to join the Archbishop of York in Hammes Castle

What were the strengths and weaknesses of Oxford’s risings?

STRENGTHS:

* Louis XI supported O v. well as he funded his invasions.
* O chose is locations well, eg - St Michael's Mount was an impregnable sit + was surrounded by water
* people like Sir Henry Bodrugan was prepared to help O - this shows that E hadn't won EVERYONE over.

WEAKNESSES:

* the rising lacked a FIGUREHEAD leader → if O was successful we don't know what he'd have done next.
* Lord Dynham + Duras prevented O's landing in Essex.
* John Fortescue chased him out of St Michael's Mount

What was the feud between Clarence and Gloucester?

* Clarence: had switched sides from W to E → he was promised titles and lands.
* Gloucester: only 18 at this time + had stayed truly loyal the WHOLE TIME + went w/ E on his exile.
* W wasn't attainted for treason as C wanted inherited lands through his marriage w/ ISABEL NEVILLE rather than simply from E's attainted lands.
* the rightful heirs to W's 2 Earldoms of Beauchamp and Neville were GEORGE, DUKE OF BEDFORD (Montague's son, W's nephew) + ANNE, COUNTESS OF WARWICK (W's widow).
* G wanted his share of lands + titles and C wasn't happy about this ---> G carried n and married Anne Neville (W's younger daughter) and E supported this, only bc C had rebelled against him for 3-4 years → G had wedded Anne Neville to inherit the lands by KIDNAPPING her → he then kidnapped the Countess of Warwick + tried to put pressure on her by getting to sign over her WHOLE SHARE.
* the fued was finally settled when E passed ACTS OF PARLIAMENT IN 1474 + 1475 → the rights went half to Isabel and Anne and C + G got half of the lands.

What was the war with France in 1475

* army consisted of 20,000 → one of the largest army to cross the Channel in 15th century.
* June 1475: troops began to sail to Calais on the 7th → whole operation took 3 weeks.
* on 20th June a REGENCY GOVERNMENT was established under the nominal rule of the 5 year old Prince Wales → E crossed on 4th July.
* the king and his council had laid the diplomatic groundwork, raised the taxes + recruited the army.
* the FIRST + CRUCIAL setback was that Charles the Bold failed to honour his agreement → he had drawn into a long siege to the east of his duchy of Gelders w/in the Holy Roman Empire + only returned to Flaunders in June, where he remained.
* w/out the expected Burgundian support, E's army moved cautiously from Calais through Burgundian-held Picardy reaching Peronne on 5th August.
* E was waiting patiently for Burgundy to MOBILIZE which it FAILED to do → neither did E' other ally BRITTANY.
* on the other hand a powerful French army under Louis XI was bearing down on E → he could've fought but his army was untried, deserted by its allies and not fully equipped for open battle.
* given the circumstances, it didn't take long for E to open peace negotiations w/ Louis → terms were swiftly agreed → Louis accepted most of the English demands: a payment of £15,000 immediately, a marriage alliance between his son and heir - the Dauphin and E's eldest daughter Elizabeth, trade concession and a 7 year truce.
* the treaty was sealed by the 2 kings in person on a specially constructed bridge over the River Somme at **PICQUIGNY** on 29th August.
* the English army began to drift home to Calais on 4th September → E set sail on 18th September → during the return crossing of the Channel, the Duke of Exeter who'd been released from the Tower to join the king, FELL OVERBOARD or E had him thrown him into the sea.
* E had entered London on the 28th → there was NO triumphant welcome home.

What were the successes and failures of the war with France in 1475?

SUCCESSES:

* Louis accepted the English demands → a payment of £15,000 immediately and thereafter £10,000 a year.
* marriage alliance between his son and heir, the Dauphin and E's eldest daughter - Elizabeth.
* trade concessions and a 7 year truce. \n

FAILURES:

* Charles the Bold failed to honour his agreement → E was waiting for Burgundy to mobilize which it FAILED to do.
* E's other ally, Brittany didn't show up.
* NO TERRITORIAL GAINS!!!

What was the war with Scotland in 1481-1482?

* E was also drawn into conflict w/ Scotland → the peace treaty of 1474 between the 2 kingdoms came under STRAIN in 1479 w/ the outbreak of CROSS-BORDER RAIDING
* tit-for-tat raiding INTENSIFIED in 1480 w/ Richard of Gloucester taking the lead on the English side as the king's lieutenant.
* 1481: E decided to mount a full-scale invasion of Scotland even as he was negotiating a treaty of mutual aid w/ Brittany.
* in the end he went no further than Nottingham leaving it to continue North under Richard.
* E PERSISTED, rejecting pressure from Maximillian to honour their agreement by at least sending troops to his assistance → instead he took advantage of the defection of James III's brother - Alexander, Duke of Albany → at the TREATY OF FOTHERINGHAY on June 11th, E recognised Alexander as King of Scots + agreed to assist him in securing the throne in return for the cession of Berwick and a sig. stretch of south-west Scotland.
* the military command was entrusted to Richard of Gloucester who led a SUBSTANTIAL ARMY North → the town of Berwick fell quickly → leaving a force to invest the castle, Gloucester marched unopposed to Edinburgh → Albany made his peace w/ James III + G had no choice to return to England, completing the capture of Berwick castle en route at the end of August

What were the successes and failures of the war with Scotland in 1481?

SUCCESSES:

* Gloucester captured Berwick castle en route at the end of August → TERRITORIAL GAIN WAS MADE.
* Treaty of Fotheringham

FAILURES:

* E's relationship w/ Maximillian was SOURED → he delayed ratification of his treaty w/ him.

What was the problem of royal finance?

* it was believed that the king should 'live off his own' → meaning that the REVENUE of his own lands should pay his expenses → this meant that the king had to 'run' his own lands + maximise the profits made from them ---> he also sought to increase them (Acts of Resumption passed in 1461, 1465, 1467 + 1473).
* when E's reign began 'The Exchequer' - the court used to collect ROYAL FINANCES which was now OUTDATED → a key PROBLEM was that its officials never left London allowing the local landowners who looked after the king's lands to be corrupt + line their own pockets → they could give FALSE figures to the exchequer who did not travel to the lands and check.

THE YORKIST LAND REVENUE EXPERIMENT + CHAMBER FINANCE:

* E from 1468, divided the royal estates into regional blocks + appointed professional bureaucrats as receivers in each area → these men were responsible for travelling around the estates in their care and making sure revenues were taken and paid to the crown → these officially did NOT report to the Exchequer but to a department of the royal household called the 'CHAMBER'.
* revenues from other sources were also paid into the chamber until it became (in the 1490s) the main centre of royal finance → the addition of Clarence's lands after 1478 made an important diff. to income and the sale of Margaret of Anjou back to the French in 1476 provided a welcome windfall.
* THE TREATY OF PICQUIGNY 1475:
* E received a one of payment of 75,000 crowns then £10,000 per year until the treaty of broken in 1482.
* a king could also collect money through the ancient FEUDAL SYSTEM → there was SUCCESSION TAX → a son taking over a fathers lands had to 'sue out livery' for their land and pay a FEE before they took possession.
* when a landowner DIED, if his heir was under 21, then the king would take POSSESSION of the estates until they were old enough and could collect the revenue from their land → the king could also control their marriage →'WARDSHIP'.
* WIDOWS were not allowed to REMARRY w/out the king's consent and the payment of a fee.
* 1474: E issued effective commissions of enquiry to 10 counties and 3 cities and is said to have personally scrutinised the ROLLS and registered to ensure he maximised his revenue → all of these sources of income were known as FEUDAL DUES!!!
* 1473-1474: E set up numerous commissions to investigate the non payment of customs → particularly in Cornwall and along the south coast and income from this source rose to around £35,000 per year.

What were the negatives of Edward’s finances?

* E was only financially solvent as able to 'LIVE OFF HIS OWN' between 1475 + 1482 w/ NO NEW grants of taxation → whilst the TREATY OF PICQUIGNY was being paid → he had to rely on TAXATION both before + after.
* 1472: parliament (after much persuasion from Bishop Alcock) made an INNOVATE GRANT to fund 13,000 archers for war w/ France + hoped to raise £118,000 --> BUT this was treated w/ suspicion + raised well short of the expected money
* spring 1473: parliament had to grant a traditional tax - a 15th + 10th to make up the difference → this was unusually held in special treasuries until the army was ready to depart as the commons did NOT trust E to spend it on the war.
* BENEVOLENCES (forced loans) were obtained from WEALTHY London merchants to help fund the campaign, evidence that E was struggling to fully fund his invasion of France → E had to rely on benevolences to pay for his planned invasion of Scotland in 1481 → he collected 5,000 marks from the City of London → Feb 1483: E had to ask parliament for a new grant of taxation to continue the war w/ Scotland → this shows that by the end of the reign the TREASURY WAS EMPTY.

What was the significance of merchants and trade

ECONOMIC DEPRESSION + NEGATIVE IMPACT OF THE CW:

* Europe had been in economic depression since the 1440s + there was a shortage in BULLION (metals to make coins) → in England, these economic problems had been made worse by defeat in France + the WoR's.
* E had inherited an ECONOMIC MESS IN 1461 and his ongoing political insecurity during the 1st reign (1461-1470) meant that he had to prioritise political support over the economy.

IMPORTANT OF CALAIS:

* most English wool was exported through Calais which was the 'wool staple' → meant that the gov. wanted all wool sold abroad to pass through Calais so that it could taxed in 1 place \n → WOOL was taxed disproportionately when compared to the other goods and formed an important part of ROYAL REVENUES.
* period of intensive CIVIL WAR (1459-1461) when the Yorkists had occupied Calais had been particularly HARMFUL for the wool trade w/ the number of wool sack sold abroad FALLING FROM 7,556 in period 1456-9 to 4,974 in the period 1459-1461 → numbers did eventually recover the 1460s.
* in the early 1460s: it was declared that the wages of the Calais garrison would be PAID DIRECTLY from the exported wool TAXED IN CALAIS → the political importance of Calais meant that the Calais' wool merchants were particularly high on E's list of priorities + he put their interests before those of the other big group of merchants → THE MERCHANTS COMPANY.
* in the parliament of 1463-5: E was persuaded by the MERCANTILE COMMUNITY to pass a series of laws protecting English merchants against foreign competition → he was reliant on loans from London to finance his regime + had to take their demands seriously.
* CREDIT to foreign wool buyers was STOPPED + they were FORCED TO PAY for their wool in cash → this could then be melted down + turned into BULLION for English coins → severely RESENTED by the Burgundians + Duke Phillip responded by PROHIBITING the import of all English goods into this territories → E then banned Burgundian imports to England + a trade war began which was not settled until 1468 after E's sister had married CHARLES THE BOLD, the new Duke of Burgundy.
* the WoR's also impacted English trade in other ways → when Louis XI backed Margaret of Anjou in the period after the battle of Towton (1462-54) → he also banned the export of all French goods to England which began a trade war lasted until 1475, despite Warwick's attempts to end it w/ a French alliance in the period 1464-67.
* PIRACY was also a major issue + at its WORST during periods of CIVIL WAR → when Warwick was in exile from England, both in the period 1459-1461 + 1469-71 → early in his 2nd reign, E agreed to pay £10,000 to the Hanse + 5,000 crowns to merchants of Castile, both as compensation for W's piracy during the READEPTION period 1470-1471

What was merchants and trade in E's second reign: 1471-83

* this period was STABLE + PEACEFUL → E's new security on the throne meant that he did not always have to prioritise POLITICAL SECURITY over merchant interests to the same degree.

PIRACY:

* one of E's greatest achievements of his 2nd reign was the ELIMINATION OF PIRACY → during the period 1450-1461, a total of 120 acts of piracy are recorded → BUT in contrast the period 1471-75 only saw 4 piracies per year and by 1483 there was almost NONE! - THE TREATY OF CHATEAUGIRON signed w/ Brittany in 1472 agreed COMPENSATION for acts of piracy + signalled the intention of both states to work together in the elimination of piracy in the channel.
* E was so DETERMINED to eliminate piracy that when the population of the coastal town of Fowey in Cornwall persistently offended → E ordered the arrest of ALL MARINERS + SHIP OWNERS from the town in 1474 → THIS SUCCEEDED IN ENDING THE PROBLEM.- E also introduced the policy of 'WAFTING' → the providing of armed escort for English commercial vessels → the WOOL FLEET to Calais was protected in this way in 1474-1475 + it became official policy to protect fishing vessels in this way 1482.

PIRACY:

* one of E's greatest achievements of his 2nd reign was the ELIMINATION OF PIRACY → during the period 1450-1461, a total of 120 acts of piracy are recorded ---> BUT in contrast the period 1471-75 only saw 4 piracies per year and by 1483 there was almost NONE! 
* THE TREATY OF CHATEAUGIRON signed w/ Brittany in 1472 agreed COMPENSATION for acts of piracy + signalled the intention of both states to work together in the elimination of piracy in the channel.
* E was so DETERMINED to eliminate piracy that when the population of the coastal town of Fowey in Cornwall persistently offended → E ordered the arrest of ALL MARINERS + SHIP OWNERS from the town in 1474 → THIS SUCCEEDED IN ENDING THE PROBLEM.
* E also introduced the policy of 'WAFTING' → the providing of armed escort for English commercial vessels → the WOOL FLEET to Calais was protected in this way in 1474-1475 + it became official policy to protect fishing vessels in this way 1482.

TRADE:

* during the 1470s, E was proactive in promoting trade + the English economy:
* in 1483: he granted licenses for 2 ITALIANS to bring 20 craftsmen to teach the English new methods of DYING + FINISHING CLOTH.
* he also encouraged SHIPBUILDING: during a visit to Bristol in 1474, he offered rewards to anybody willing to build a ship at their own expense.
* LIMITATIONS:
* in 1483: he prohibited all trade w/ France in ANGER at Louis XI who had broken the TREATY OF PICQUIGNY → Louis stopped paying E a pension → once again E was PUTTING POLICIES BEFORE TRADE.
* the TREATY OF ULTRECHT, whilst encouraging trade → FAILED to give English trading rights in Hanseatic ports.
* many of E's trade policies only came into effect LATE in the reign which LIMITED THEIR IMPACT.

What was the new regime

* E tried to reintegrate Lancastrian noblemen who had fought against him in the period 1470-1471.

POWER BLOCKS:

* Clarence was initially given control of W's lands in the Midlands and South West → his midlands were later given to HASTINGS.
* Hastings controlled the EAST MIDLANDS where his own lands were, but also CAPTAIN OF CALAIS.
* GLOUCESTER was given W's land in the North centred in Middleman Castle → his power extended after his invasion of Scotland in 1482 when the County Palatine of Cumberland was created for him → in 1473, HENRY PERCY signed an indenture to serve Gloucester.
* THOMAS GREY was created Marquess of Dorset in 1475 + later given the Wardship of Clarence's heir Edward, Earl of Warwick → this gave him control of Clarences former lands → E also agreed that his son and heir would marry ANNE, St LEGER, the heir to the Duchy of Exeter.
* HOWEVER, other nobles such as HENRY, DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM who was from an ancient family + had ROYAL BLOOD from Edward III were IGNORED by E bc he clearly did NOT trust them!

What was the death of George, Duke of Clarence?

WHY DID CLARENCE + EDWARD FALL OUT IN 1477?

* they fell out in 1477 as E VETOED the marriage between Clarence + Margaret's stepdaughter MARY as it would've TORN UP THE TREATY w/ France + the benefits it gave E + bc he still distrusted Clarence + feared his power should he become DUKE OF BURGUNDY 
* Clarence was also v. angry as E thought ANTHONY WOODVILLE should be the Duke of Burgundy.

WHAT WERE THE OFFENCES THAT LED TO CLARENCE'S ARREST?

* C had ANKARET TWYNHOE + JOHN THURSBY executed for poisoning his WIFE → Thursby was likely to be E's spy → C also was apparently involved in the HOROSCOPE reading of E's early death, mainly carried out by Oxford astrologer → JOHN STACY → Stacy also had an associate → THOMAS BURDET who was also linked → lastly, C bursted into the Houses of Commons w/ a Lancastrian supporter - DR WILLIAM GODDARD → he yelled at E that Burdet was innocent + E was ENRAGED also as he'd brought Goddard who had previously said that Henry was the rightful king!

EXPLAIN THE CHARGES MADE AGAINST CLARENCE IN PARLIAMENT.

* C was executed for treason for the following:
* keeping a copy of the TREATY OF ANGERS
* claiming that he'd be the rightful king
* spreading rumours about E's illegitimacy
* encouraging Burdet to raise a rebellion
* usurped E's authority by carrying out executions

WHAT HAPPENED TO CLARENCE?

* he drowned in a barrel of his favourite wine.

WHY MIGHT THE QUEEN HAVE WANTED TO BRING DOWN CLARENCE?

* may have wanted REVENGE as he was involved in W's first rebellion, when he killed her father + brother 
* also worried that C may seize the throne if E (dropped dead) for instance.

What was the divisions at court at the end of Edward’s reign?

GLOUCESTER'S FRIENDSHIP W/ HASTINGS:

* both had been in exile w/ e in 1471
* both wanted war w/ France + supported E's ambitions for the marriage of Mary of Burgundy to Earl Rivers in 1477.
* Hastings supported G's campaigns in Scotland in the early 1480s.
* both had a particular distaste for the Woodvilles.

FEUD BETWEEN HASTINGS + THOMAS GREY:

* Marquess of Dorset, didn't pay for the Marquess's marriage to Lord Hasting's stepdaughter - CECILY BONVILLE.
* also might be feuding over a woman - ELIZABETH SHAW (woman in court) → E's mistress before he married (LOVE TRIANGLE).

FEUD BETWEEN HASTINGS + RIVERS:

* Hastings in 1471 when he was appointed Lieutenant of Calais → bad blood emerged as Rivers also wanted it.

GLOUCESTER'S DISLIKE OF THE WOODVILLE'S:

* Rivers regarded as a 'coward' → he didn't do his reputation any favours when he deserted the Burgundian army in 1476 - eve of BATTLE OF MORAT!
* Gloucester may have held the family, esp. rivers responsible for the death of George → not entirely true!

GENERAL DISLIKE OF THE WOODVILLE'S:

* long-term dislike of Woodville's since the marriage between E + Elizabeth.
* rumours that Rivers + Dorset would betray Calais to the French → RUMOUR!
* growing concern of their growing power → esp. THOMAS + RICHARD GREY'S promotions.

How successful was Edward in restoring the authority of the monarchy after 1471

DEALING WITH OPPOSITION/LAW + ORDER:

* he had settled the dispute alright, by putting ACTS OF PARLIAMENT in place → HOWEVER he favoured Gloucester more as he was LOYAL throughout his exile → but this angered Clarence, THEREFORE it wasn't fully resolved.

HANDLING THE NOBILITY:

* he did an average job.
* he eliminated the house of Lancaster → Henry, Margaret + Edward.
* he partially fixed George + Richard, however he ended up killing George.
* he put nobles who envied each other in charge of parts of England - eg, Hastings + Rivers.
* it didn't help that no one liked the Woodville's either → created a lot of dispute + anger!

FOREIGN POLICY:

* didn't go to plan.
* no TERRITORIAL GAINS made whatsoever!
* Burgundy + Brittany never turned up in the war w/ France
* in the war w/ Scotland, MAXIMILLIAN delayed ratification of his treaty w/ E.

FINANCE:

* pretty good, compared to the other areas of gov.
* TREATY OF PICQUIGNY - E received £10,000 a year from Louis XI 

FEUDAL DUES

* after 1475, E was able to pay of all his debts + didn't ask parliament for any money - NO FOREIGN WARS!

what happened on april 1483

death of edward iv

what happened on October 1483

buckinghams rebellion

what happened on April of 1484

the death of Richard’s only legitimate son, Edward

what happened in march 1485

the death of Queen Anne - poisoned

what happened in 1485

the battle of bosworth field; Richard is killed and Henry vii becomes king

After his first Coup at Stony Stratford on April 30th Richard entered London, with Edward V, and was named what and did what?

he was declared protector and distributed anti-woodville propaganda

what was the anti-woodville propaganda he spread?

he had never approved of Edward IV’s marriage to Elizabeth in 1464 , he blamed the queen and her family for the fall and death of Clarence, thing which he deeply and had afterward exiled himself to the north away from them, that they had used up all of Edward iv’s treasure in the days after his death.

was the anti-woodville propaganda true?

* No, Edward IV did not leave any treasure – we know there only £1,200 in the treasury after his death.
* Richard played a full part in Clarence trial and benefited from his death through land grants.
* Evidence also shows that Richard had been on good term with the queen and her family before 1483. The Queen had made his steward of her Bedfordshire estates in 1469 and increased his fee for the role in 1473 showing a working relationship and trust between them, Rivers and Dorset had served under his command happily  in the Scottish Wars of 1481.

what happened during on 30th April 1483 (Richard III's first coup d'etat)

Earl Rivers (Elizabeth Woodville's brother), Richard Grey and Thomas Vaughan are arrested by the Duke of Gloucester and Buckingham.

what happened during on 10th May 1483 (Richard III's first coup d'etat)

Richard is appointed as the Lord Protector, he claims Edward produced a 'will' and the council believes it

what happened during on 19th May 1483 (Richard III's first coup d'etat)

Edward V is moved to the Tower of London

what happened during on 23rd May 1483 (Richard III's first coup d'etat)

Gloucester, Buckingham and the archbishops try and persuade Elizabeth Woodville to leave the sanctuary of Westminster Abbey, but FAIL (all of the Woodville's titles/powers were all stripped away).

what happened 13th June in 1483 (Richard III's second coup d'etat)?

Lord Hastings is immediately executed without a trial, after being charged with treasonable conspiracy with the queen. Archbishop Rotherham of York, Bishop Morton and perhaps Lord Stanley were all imprisoned

* this was illegal behaviour by Richard and everyone was completely shocking and took everyone by surprise as this was the moment that Richard made clear he wanted the throne.

what happened 16th June in 1483 (Richard III's second coup d'etat)?

Edward V's brother, Richard, Duke of York is removed from the sanctuary and is put in the Tower of London.

what happened 22nd June in 1483 (Richard III's second coup d'etat)?

the bastadry of the Princes have been made public at St Paul's Cross in London by Ralpha Shaa.

what happened 6th July in 1483 (Richard III's second coup d'etat)?

coronation of Richard III

what is the issue with the princes in the tower

* while there were sightings of the boys playing on the grounds, they were suddenly no where to be found after July 1483
* their 'murder' is the greatest accusation laid at the hands of Richard III

what did the issue of the princes in the tower mean to the Duke of Buckingham?

Duke of Buckingham, who as a loyal yorkist supporter, wouldn't have turned against Richard and supported Henry Tudor unless he too were convinced that Edward V and Richard were dead.

what did the issue of the princes in the tower mean to the support of Richard III

support for Richard was already weak, and the accusations made it worse and added fuel to the fire but support for Richard in the North was as strong as ever and many members of the nobility supported the usurper king despite his deposition of Edward V and possible murder of the Princes.

why did buckingham resent the woodvilles (join the coups)?

Buckingham claimed to have resented his wife and the Woodvilles as a whole as Elizabeth Woodville had forced him to marry Catherine Woodville when he was only 10!