Sugars made up of two covalently bonded monosaccharides. EX: Maltose, sucrose, lactose
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Oligosaccharides
Short chains of three or more monosaccharides (at least 10).
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Polysaccharides
Long chains of monosaccharides (at least 50).
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"\_____________________" are oxidized to make ATP
Carbohydrates.
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Digested carbohydrates are converted into "\____________".
Glucose
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"\______________" are a major component of mucus.
Glycoproteins.
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Proteoglycans
-More carbohydrate than protein. -Gels that hold cells and tissue together. -They fill the umbilical and eye and act as joint lubrication.
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Lipids
Hydrophobic organic molecules with a high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen.
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Fatty acids
Chains of 4-24 carbon atoms with a carboxyl group on one end and methyl group on the other.
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Saturated fatty acids
Carbon atoms linked by single covalent bonds that have the most hydrogens possible within their structure.
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Unsaturated fatty acids
Carbon atom chains that contain some double bonds between each other and has potential to obtain more hydrogens.
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polyunsaturated fatty acids
Carbon atom chains that contain multiple double bonds.
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Triglycerides (Neutral fats)
3 fatty acids linked to glycerol; formed by dehydration synthesis and broken down by hydrolysis; primary function energy storage; also helps with insulation and shock absorption
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Dietary oils and fats are "\________________".
Triglycerides.
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Phospholipids
Similar to neutral fats except one fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate group, and happens to be the structural foundation of the cell membrane.
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Eicosanoids
-20-carbon compounds derived from arachidonic acid -Hormone-like chemical signals between cells -Includes prostaglandins
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Prostaglandins
Play important roles in inflammation, blood clotting, hormone action, labor contractions, blood vessel diameter.
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Steroid
A lipid with 17 carbon atoms within 4 rings.
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Cholesterol
-The "parent" steroid from which other steroids are synthesized -Important for nervous system function and structural integrity of all cell membranes
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A high density of lipoprotein (HDL) is a great indicator of "\_________________"
Good cholesterol; lower ratio of lipid to protein.
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A low density of lipoprotein (LDL) is a great indicator of "\________________"
Bad cholesterol; higher ratio of lipid to protein.
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"\_____" amino acids are used to make the proteins are identical except for the sidechain or (R) group
20
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Properties of each amino acid determined by the "\___________".
R group.
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Peptide
Composed of two or more amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
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Peptide bond
-Joins the amino group of one amino acid to the carboxyl group of the next. -Formed by dehydration synthesis.
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Proteins have more than "\___" amino acids
50
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"\_________________________________" creates a peptide bond that joins the amino acid of one group to the carboxyl group of the next.
Dehydration synthesis.
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Extreme heat or pH can cause irreversible denaturing to "\_____________".
Proteins.
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Denaturation
A process in which a protein unravels, losing its specific structure and hence function; can be caused by changes in pH or salt concentration or by high temperature. Also refers to the separation of the two strands of the DNA double helix, caused by similar factors.
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Conjugated proteins contain a non-amino acid moiety called a "\__________________" covalently bound to them.
Prosthetic group.
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Keratin
Tough structural protein of hair, nails, skin surface.
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Collagen
A protein contained in deeper layers of skin, bones, cartilage, and teeth.
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Ligands
Signaling molecules that exert their effects by reversibly binding to a receptor molecule.
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Channel proteins
Allow hydrophilic substances to diffuse across cell membranes
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Carrier proteins
Help solutes cross cell membranes via active or passive transport,
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Glycoproteins are important for "\______________________".
Immune recognition.
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The enzymes that catalyze physiological reactions are usually "\_____________________".
Globular proteins.
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Motor proteins
Molecules with the ability to change shape repeatedly.
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"\_____________" bind cells together, otherwise known as cell adhesion.
Proteins.
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Uniport
Carriers of one type of solute.
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Symport
Carries 2+ solutes simultaneously in the same direction (co-transport).
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Cofactors
Non-protein "helper" molecules whose presence isnecessary for many enzymes to function
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With cofactors:
-About two-thirds of human enzymes require a cofactor. -Some cofactors are inorganic ions such as iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, and calcium. -Cofactors work by binding to the enzyme and triggering a conformational change that activates the active site.
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Coenzymes
-Organic cofactors. -Often derived from vitamins. -Plays an important role in metabolism and ATP production by shuttling electrons between enzymes in respiration pathways.
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Metabolic pathway
Chain of reactions, each catalyzed by a different enzyme.
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Metabolic pathways are turned on/off by way of either "\_________________" or "\_________________".
Binding /disassociating the cofactors; feedback inhibition.
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With feedback inhibition:
-The end product inhibits an enzyme at an earlier step (e.g., product D binds to enzyme a and shuts down production of intermediate product B). -Pathway is turned on when the end product is in demand (low concentration) and turned off once concentration increases.
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Nucleotides
Organic compounds that contain a nitrogenous base (single or double a carbon-nitrogen ring), a sugar (monosaccharide), and one or more phosphate groups.
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ATP and cAMP are both "\_______________".
Nucleotides.
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"\____________" stores energy gained from exergonic reactions and releases it within seconds for physiological work.
ATP
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"\_________" holds energy in covalent bonds. The second and third phosphate groups have high energy bonds.
ATP
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Most energy transfers to and from "\__________" involve adding or removing the third phosphate group.
ATP
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Phosphorylation
The addition of free phosphate group to a molecule; is carried out by kinases.
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Hydrolysis of ATP is catalyzed by "\________________".
ATPases.
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During the hydrolysis of ATP, ATPases:
-Break the third high-energy phosphate bond. -Separates ADP into ADP+ Pi+ energy.
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Glycolysis
Splitting glucose into 2 pyruvates.
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If ATP demand outpaces oxygen supply, pyruvate anaerobically ferments to "\____________".
Lactate.
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If enough oxygen is present, aerobic respiration occurs in the "\______________".
Mitochondria.
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cAMP
Formed by the removal of second and third phosphate groups from ATP.
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Formation of "\____________" is triggered by hormones binding to the cell surface.
cAMP.
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"\____________" becomes "second messenger" within cell.
cAMP.
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Thin, flat, and scaly cell structure:
Squamous
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Squarish-looking cell structure
Cuboidal
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More taller than wide cell structure
Columnar
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Cell structure containing irregularly angular shapes with multiple sides
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