Fundamental of Psych Exam Revision Set

Personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Psychodynamic Approach (Freud)

thoughts, feelings and behaviour are determined by the interaction of various unconscious psychological processes. Developed in childhood.

Structures of Personality (Freud)

Comprised of Id, Ego and Superego

Id

the unconscious portion of personality that contains basic impulses and urges (the devil - I want) operates on the pleasure prinicple - seeks immediate satisfaction
Hungry person who pushes to the front of the line

Ego

the part of the personality the mediates conflicts between and among the demands of the id the superego and the real work (neutral - I will) - the ego tries to find ways to get what it wants in the real world as opposed to the fantasy world
The ego would have the hungry person wait in line and think about what to order rather than risk pushing ahead

Superego

the component of personality that tells people what they should and shouldn't do (moral compass the angel.. I should )
The hungry person would feel guilty for even thinking about violating society's rules

psychosexual development (Freud)

periods of personality development in which, according to Freud, conflicts focus on particular issues. Freud believed that the stage at which a person became fixated in childhood can be seen in adult personality characteristics. There are 5 stages

Oral Stage

Stage 1 - mouth is the centre of pleasure

Anal Stage

Stage 2 - childs ego develops to cope with parental demands for socially appropriate behaviour

Phallic Stage

Stage 3 - focus of pleasure and conflict shifts to the genital area - usually between the ages of three to five. During this stage that male superego tends to develop. Unresolved conflicts from phallic stage can lead to difficulties in dealing with authority figures and an inability to maintain a stable love relationship.

Latency Period

Stage 4 - where sexual impulses lie dormant lasts through childhood. There is a focus on same sex peer play and development of social skills

Genital Stage

Stage 5 - begins during adolescence and continues for the rest of a person's life - when sexual impulses appear at the conscious level. Quality of relationships and degree of fulfilment experienced during this final stage are influenced by how intrapsychic conflicts were resolved during the earlier stages

the Trait approach

an approach to studying personality that focuses on how individuals differ in personality dispositions

Trait Theories

include Allports theory (central v secondary traits)
5 Factor Model (OCEAN) and Biological Trait theories (Eyseneck Biological Trait Theory)

Trait theorists use inventories with Likert scales to assess personality such as NEO-PI-R and the MMPI

social cognitive theory

looks at the role of conscious thoughts and emotions and is based on social learning approach. includes Rotters Expectancy Theory, Bandura's Reciprocal Determinism and Mischels Cognitive/Affective theory

Humanistic Approach

An approach to psychology emphasizing a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny.
Best known theorists are Rogers and Maslow

developmental psychology

focuses on developmental changes across the lifespan

prenatal development

the most important stage in the development of the central nervous system. Exposure to harmful environmental agents (teratogens) can result in lasting physical and mental impairment

infancy

babies are born with adaptive reflexes, e.g. rooting and sucking. These disappear as infants gain more control of their movement

childhood and adolescence

puberty in particular leads to significant physical and psychological changes. The psychological impact of early puberty differs significantly between the sexes

adulthood and ageing

changes after adolescence are more gradual and less dramatic. Ageing leads to reduced sensory ability, which must be dealt with psychologically.

nature v nurture debate

the arguments concerning whether psychological characteristics are biologically innate or acquired through education, experience, and culture

Piaget's Model of Cognitive Development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
Each stage of cognitive development builds on previous stages and is a different way of thinking

Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)

0-2. Sensations and perceptions. Master object permanence. Emphasis on the senses: touch, vision, motor (sucking and grasping)

preoperational stage (Piaget)

2-7. Motor skills are acquired; egocentrism is strong but begins to decline; no logical thinking yet; most rapid period of development - children are able to pretend. Inatimate objects can have intentions, feelings - a belief called animinsm.

concrete operational stage (Piaget)

7-12. The child develops the ability to understand constant factors in the environment, rules, and higher-order symbolic systems. Conservation is developed here.

formal operational stage (Piaget)

12-adulthood. Children develop the ability to think logically in the abstract. They develop deductive reasoning skills and are capable of achieving post-conventional moral reasoning. Ability to engage in hypothetical thinking

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when they can no longer be seen

Cognitive stages associated with ageing

reduction in reaction time
decline in active thinking
difficulty thinking through complex problems
Alzheimers disease - become disoriented and mentally vacant & die prematurely

Erickson's Psychosocial Theory

stage theory of psychosocial development, lifespan consists of eight dilemmas that must be solved correctly in order to solve the next dilemma

8 stages of psychosocial development (Erickson)

1. Trust v Mistrust - Hope (1st year)
2. Autonomy v Shame - Will (2nd year)
3. Initiative v Guilt - Purpose (3 to 5 years)
4. Industry v Inferiority - Competency (6+ puberty)
5. Indentity v Role Confusion - Fidelity (Adolescence)
6. Intimacy v Isolation - Love (Early adulthood)
7. Generativity v Stagnation - Care (Middle Age)
8. Ego Integrity v Despair - Wisdom (Old Age)

attachment behaviour

most infants form a secure attachment to the mother. They use the mother as a home base. These children tolerate brief separations from mother but are happy to see her return.

Attachment Theory (Bowlby)

the tendency in human beings to make strong affectional bonds with others coming from the need for security and safety

Harlow (Attachement)

researcher that highlighted the importance of physical contact comfort in the formation of attachments with parents (monkeys). infant monkeys that were isolated from all social contact after birth showed dramatic disturbances. Impaired socially, emotionally, and physically throughout adulthood.

Avoidant (insecure attachment)

the infant avoids or ignores the mother when she returns after a brief separation

Ambivalent (insecure attachment)

Infant is upset when mother leaves, but acts angry and rejects mother's efforts at contact after a brief separation

Disorganised (insecure attachment)

the infant is inconsistent and disturbed

socialisation

the process whereby parents try to channel childrens impulses into socially accepted outlets and teach them skills and rules

Parenting Styles

1. Authoritarian Parents
2. Permissive Parents
3. Authoritative Parents
4. Uninvolved Parents

Authoritarian Parenting

style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child.
Children of authoritarian parents tend to be unfriendly, distrustful, and withdrawn.

Permissive Parenting

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior.
Children of permissive parents tend to be immature, dependent, and unhappy.

Authoritative Parenting

A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior.
Children of authoritative parents tend to be friendly, cooperative, self-reliant, and socially responsible.

Uninvolved Parenting Style

parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful; they don't respond to the child's needs and make relatively few demands
Children of uninvolved parents are less likely to form secure attachments and more likely to have problems with impulsivity, aggression, and low self-esteem.

ethnic identity

a person's identification with a racial or ethnic group

Emerging Adulthood (western cultures)

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood - a time for resolving the identity crisis

identity crisis

a period of inner conflict during which adolescents worry intensely about who they are - young people try out various behaviours to help resolve questions about sexuality, self-worth, industriousness and independence

late adulthood

65 -75 years of age
most people think of themselves as middle aged - not old. They are active and are often physically vigorous. life satisfaction and self esteem are as high as during any other period of adulthood.
people usually retire - can result in physical and psychological problems.

Old age

people over 75. Not necessarily a time of loneliness - people become more cautious. Develop coping strategies that take into account limits of control. Tend to restrict social network to loved ones.

Moral Reasoning (Kohlberg)

Kohlberg found that the reasons given for moral choices change systematically and consistently with age, and he proposed that moral reasoning develops in six stages.

Preconventional Morality

in stages 1 & 2, moral judgements are selfish and centred on avoiding punishment or following rules when it is to their own advantage. Most common in children under age 9 \= preconventional reasoning

Conventional Morality

Stages 3 & 4 of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behaviour, such as duty to family and country. Most common in children from 9 to 19 \= conventional reasoning

postconventional morality

Stage 5 & 6 of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the person's behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual and that may be in disagreement with accepted social norms. People only reach this level after adolescence.

social perception

the study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people

self-fulfilling prophecy

the tendency for people to behave as they are expected to behave

Attribution

the process of explaining one's own behavior and the behavior of others

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

ultimate attribution error

assumption that behaviors among individual members of a group are due to their internal dispositions

out-group

people we see as being different from ourselves

in-group

people we see as being like ourselves

consensus

the degree to which other people's behaviour is similar to that of the actor

consistency

the degree to which the behaviour is the same across time or situations. This question is difficult to answer without information about distinctiveness

Distinctiveness

how the person's behavior varies from one situation to another

actor-observer effect

the tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviors while making dispositional attributions for the identical behavior of others

self-serving bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

social cognition

the processes by which people come to understand others

the self

Two different theoretical perspectives on the self are:
psychodynamic perspective: focusing on mental models or representations of the self
cognitive perspective: focusing on the way the self-concept shapes thought and memory.

Self concept

the way one thinks of one self

self esteem

The evaluations one makes about how worthy one is as a human being

social comparison

evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

reference groups

groups of people with whom one compares oneself

Relative Deprivation Theory

Actions of groups that are oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy. ex. Civil Rights Movements

social norms

expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior

social facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

social interference

the impairment in performance that is sometimes found when an individual performs in the presence of others

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

attitude

an association between an act of object and an evaluation. attitudes can guide behaviour but the two do not always correlate well.

cognitive dissonance

a discrepancy between attitude and behaviour that leads to psychological tension

implicit attitudes

attitudes that we are unaware of but that can influence how we feel and act towards certain objects or acts.

elaboration likelihood model

theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route

cognitive dissonance theory

A theory asserting that attitude change is driven by efforts to reduce tension caused by inconsistencies between attitudes and behaviours. (dissonance \= inconsistency)

self-perception theory

The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs

stereotype

perceptions, beliefs and expectations a person has about members of some group. They are schemas about entire groups of people. Include false assumptions that all members of a group share the same characteristics.

prejudice

a judgement based on a negative stereotype

social discrimination

differing treatment of individuals who belong to different groups

attribution

consensus

general agreement

attribution error

error made in attributing the causes for someone's behavior to their membership in a particular group, such as a racial group

motivational theory of prejudice and stereotyping

Ability to influence the choices people make among a number of possible choices open to them.

cognitive theories of prejudice and stereotyping

may use schemas and other cognitive shortcuts to organise and to quickly make sense out of the social world

learning theories of prejudice and stereotyping

prejudice can be learned on the basis of conflicts between members of different groups. learning theories suggest that children can pick up prejudices just by watching and listening to parents, peers and others.

contact hypothesis

The idea that stereotypes and prejudice toward a group will diminish as contact with the group increases.

social influence

the effect that the words, actions, or mere presence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior

the key elements of social influence

1. Obedience
2. Conformity
3. Compliance

obedience

changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

compliance

the tendency to agree to do things requested by others. Involves implicit or explicit requests.

altruism

an unselfish concern for others; generosity

helping behaviour

an act intended to benefit another person