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Function of serial position
Graph mapping proportion recalled of a list of terms in order
Primary effect
Greater likelihood of remembering items at beginning of list
Recency effect
Greater likelihood of remembering last items seen on a list
Control processes
Control movement of information within and between memory stores
Sensory memory
Memory formed automatically that holds information long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics, large capacity, brief retention
Iconic memory
Sensory memory’s visual info
Echoic memory
Sensory memory’s auditory info
Attention
Transfers information from sensory memory to working memory
Dichotic listening task
Demonstrates selective listening, two audio streams w/ one input per ear
Selective attention
The processes that allow an individual to select and focus on particular input for further processing while simultaneously suppressing irrelevant or distracting information.
Cocktail party effect
Example of selective attention: focus on single convo in noisy room
Working memory
The conscious processing of information, where information is actively worked on,
Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items)
Duration – brief storage (about 30 seconds)
Maintenance rehearsal
Mental or verbal repetition of informationAllows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds
Components of working memory
Central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, phonological loop
Long term memory
Organizes and stores information, more passive form of storage than working memory
Capacity - Unlimited
Duration - Thought by some to be permanent
Encoding
Process that coordinates the flow of working memory information into long-term memories
Retrieval
Process that controls flow of information from long-term to working memory store
Explicit/declarative memory
Memory consciously recalled or declared, can use to directly respond to a question
Episodic memory
Memory tied to personal experiences
Semantic memory
Memory not tied to personal experiences, general facts and definitions about the world
Implicit/non-decarative memory
Influences thoughts or behavior without entering consciousness, enables you to perform specific learned skills or habitual responses
Priming
Priming is influence of one memory on another, and is implicit because it does not depend on awareness and is automatic
Conceptual priming
The semantic meaning of priming stimulus influences your encoding or retrieval, thought to involve activation of concepts stored in semantic memory
Perceptual priming
Priming that facilitates concept retrieval based solely on low-level perceptual attributes, primes a concept without the use of concepts
Automatic encoding
Most encoding occurs without effort: Most errors in retrieval occur here.
Effortful encoding
Need to focus on meaning of information to encode it into LTM, not simply repeating but focus on concept
Levels of processing
Different levels elaboration into LTM:
Structural (shallow)
Phonemic (intermediate processing)
Semantic (deep processing)
Encoding-specificity principle
Within what context information is encoded governs what and how information will be retrieved, the closer retrieval conditions are to encoding conditions the better the recall.
State-dependency memory
Encoding processes can be associated with a particular internal state, improved recall when internal state matches the internal state during retrieval.
Chunking
Grouping small bits of information into larger units of information
Schema
A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information, participants tend to falsely “remember” schema consistent items and not remember schema inconsistent items.
Script
A cognitive framework for a sequence of actions that describe an activity, participants tend to falsely “remember” script consistent people/actions and not remember script inconsistent items.
Weapon focus
“Window of attention” narrows during high-arousal situations
Flashbulb memories
Episodic memories during major events: Vividness ratings remain high, more “think” they remember more than they actually do.
Encoding failure
Inability to remember information due to insufficient encoding
Decay theory of forgetting
Once stored in LTM, information gradually decays as a function of time (false)
Retroactive interference
More recent learning interferes with memory for something in the past
Proactive interference
Information learned in the past interferes with learning something new
Central executive
Chooses focus
Visuospatial sketchpad
The visuospatial sketchpad refers to our ability temporarily to hold visual and spatial information
Episodic buffer
It is a temporary store that integrates information from the other components and maintains a sense of time, so that events occur in a continuing sequence
Phonological loop
The “phonological loop” is the speech- and sound-related component of working memory and holds verbal and auditory information
Conditioned memory
Classical conditioning memory, automatic
Procedural memory
Memory that enables you to perform specific learned skills or habitual responses
Number of neurons in brain
100-150 billion
Peripheral Nervous System
contains all the neural networks that lie outside of the brain and spinal cord, motor system and sensory system
Central Nervous System
Brain and spinal cord
Neuron
A neuron is a specialized cell in the nervous system that transmits information through electrical and chemical signals. Neurons consist of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon, which allows them to receive, process, and transmit signals, respectively.
Cell body
Signal integration zone; defined by the presence of a nucleus
Dendrite
Receives neural signals from other neurons
Axon Hillock
Axon hillock is the neuronal region in the cell body wherein the summation of the excitatory & inhibitory activity occurs
Axon
Sends neural signals to neurons, muscles, glands
Myelin sheath
Myelin is an insulating layer around neurons, improves transmission
Nodes of ranvier
A gap in the myelin sheath of a nerve
Axon collaterals
Spread to multiple axon terminals
Axon terminals
Connect to other neurons
Apical dendrite
At apex of pyramidal neuron
Basal densrite
At cell body of pyramidal neuron
Glial cell
Glial cells are a type of cell that provides physical and chemical support to neurons and maintain their environment
Schwann cell
Create myelin sheath in PNS
Oligodendrocyte cells
myelin sheath in CNS
Multiple sclerosis
White blood cells attack myelin sheath, eventually myelin sheath impedes neurons b/c of scar tissue, person dies
Microglial cells
Help clean debris in extracellular space
Astrocyte cells
Physical support regulate blood cell, control extracellular environment
Motor nuerons
Send axons to muscles or glands, control movement
Sensory nuerons
Alter response rates based on changes in the environment, 5 senses
Internuerons
Rest of the neuron population – receive and send signals to other neurons
Action potential
Rapid change in the electrical polarity of the cell membrane that gives way to neurotransmitter release
Ion channels
Allow for different ions to enter/leave the intracellular space at different times. As a result, neuron cell membranes are semipermeable to certain ions.
Charge in neuron
Negative
Charge outside neuron
positive
Synaptic vesicles
Transport neurotransmitters
Inhibitory neurotransmitter
Block chemical message from being passed, hyper polarize
Excitatory neurotransmitter
Cause nuerons to fire message, depolarizes
Resting potential
Normal state of post-synaptic neuron, negative charge
Nuerotransmitters
Open sodium-ion channel, allow positive charges to enter
Threshold
After reaching threshold, charge jumps to very positive charge for a while, does stuff (positive polarization)
Hyperpolarization
After very positive charge, neuron gets tired and goes below resting potential by pushing positive potassium out
Pre-synaptic neuron
before the synapse and is the cell releasing the “message”
Post-synaptic neuron
target cell, is after the synapse and is the cell receiving the “message”
Synaptic cleft
Gap between pre and post-synaptic neurons
Spatial summation
Pre-synaptic neurons arriving at nearby locations will sum more than those arriving at distant locations
Temporal summation
Pre-synaptic signals that arrive close together in time will sum more than those arriving farther apart in time.
Structural measures of brain
Physical measures
Functional measures of brain
Measures what parts are working
Invasive
Hole in skull
Non-invasive
Skull in-tact
In vivo
Brain in body
In vitro
Brain removed from body
Postmortem brain examination
Structural, invasive, in vitro,
Removal of brain from dead body
CT scan
Structural, noninvasive, in vivo
Image of brain
MRI
Structural, non-invasive, in vivo
Magnetic field makes atoms align, creates 3-D high def image
PET scan
Functional, non-invasive, in vivo
Injection of radioactive glucose, shows active areas of brain, but bad resolution and can’t be done often
EEG
Functional, non-invasive, in vivo
While the active neuron is firing action potentials, the dendrites and cell body form a small electric dipole, good with time
fMRI
Functional, non-invasive, in vivo
Blood-oxygen signal, best spatial resolution, poor temporal resolution
Hindbrain
Medulla, cerebellum, pons
Medulla
Automatic function, life forces, brain-spinal cord relay
Cerebellum
Equilibrium; postural reflexes; general gait; muscle coordination.
Pons
Regulates sleep and arousal states
Midbrain
Substantia nigra