Final Exam History and Systems

Edward Thorndike

“Mind-reading” experiments

Connectionism

*Law of Effect*

\-Annoyers, Satisfiers

Connectionism

learning occurs as a result of connections made between situations and responses 

Law of Effect

*responses are either*:

* *Annoyers: weaken association between response and stimulus*
* *Satisfiers: strengthen connection between response and stimulus*

*Argued that behavior must be reduced to its simplest elements: S-R units*

Ivan Pavlov

Planned on Priesthood, but read *The Origin of Species* and *Reflexes of the Brain*

Worked with S.P. Botkin (St. Petersburg Military Academy)

* *Nervism*
* Classical conditioning (1927)

*Nervism*

*the nervous system regulates most bodily functions*

Pavlov’s Conditioning Experiments

*Psychical Reflex*

*Psychical stimuli*

Different types of conditioned stimuli

*Generalization*

*Psychical Reflex*

*physiological reflex controlled by higher centers in the nervous system (UCR)*

* unconditioned response

*Psychical stimuli*

*a stimulus that elicits a response that is not appropriate to the stimulus (CS)*

* conditioned stimulus

*Generalization*

*stimuli similar to CS elicits CR*

Conditioning Experiments, cont.

*Secondary Conditioning*

*Extinction*

*Discrimination*

Individual Differences in Conditioning

*Secondary Conditioning*

*pair a new CS with original CS*

*Extinction*

*decrease the association through repeated presentations of CS without the UCS*

*Discrimination*

*if another stimulus is different from CS, no CR will occur*

Conditioning Theories Before Pavlov

Dumas & the salivary reflex (1803)

Claude Bernard & waving at horses (1872)

Twitmeyer & patellar tendons (1902)

John Watson

“Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It”

Replace the study of consciousness with the study of behavior.

* *Goal*: observation, prediction, and control

Studied with Gordon B. Moore

Chicago & Angell (remember the Chicago school)

Physiology under Loeb

* *Tropisms*

Reflexes can, according to Watson, be classified into

Emotions, instincts, and habits; are all patterns of reflex arcs.

* The fundamental unit, the stimulus-response, connection, or reflex arc, is combined with others and compounded into one of these three categories of behavior.

*Tropisms*

*unlearned orienting reactions toward and away from stimuli are mechanical responses*

Watson’s Early Research

*Dissertation*

* Chicago:
* Maze learning in rats (with Carr), found memory of mazes stored in muscles, not senses

Dissertation

Speed of learning in rats of different ages

Watson at Johns Hopkins

“Behaviorist Manifesto” (*Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It,* 1913\*)\*

* Attacked by most of the people we’ve talked about
* Little Albert
* This account may not be entirely true
* Other researchers were not able to replicate

Neobehaviorism

*Operationism* (Bridgman)

* Rid science of “pseudoproblems”
* A concept is the same as the set of operations or procedures by which it is determined.
* *Operational Definition*
* Determines validity

*Operationism* (Bridgman)

*the language of science needs to be objective & precise*

Edward Tolman

Purposive Behaviorism

Learning Theory

Intervening Variables

*Purposive Behaviorism*

*study of overt behaviors with goal-directed behavior*

* *Behavior is due to intention of achieving a goal or a means to an end (only interested in overt behavior)*

*Learning Theory*

*repeated performance strengthens the learned relationship between environment & expectations*

* Not reinforcement

*Intervening Variables*

*Unobserved, inferred factors within an organism that are the real determinants of behavior*

* Occurs between the independent variable and the response (S-O-R Psychology)
* These factors can be described in relation to empirical variables that we can measure

Clark Hull

* Create a theory of behavior based on Pavlov
* *Principles of Behavior* (1943)
* *Hypothetico-Deductive Method*
* Law of Primary Reinforcement
* Drives
* Habit Strength

*Hypothetico-Deductive Method*

*theories should be developed which establish testable hypotheses*

*Law of Primary Reinforcement*

*when S-R relationship is followed by a reduction in need, the probability increases the same stimulus will evoke the same response later*

*Primary drive*

*innate biological need states*

*Secondary drive*

*situations or environmental stimuli with reduction of primary drives*

*Habit Strength*

*greater number of reinforcements encountered, the stronger the association between them*

B.F. Skinner

Revitalization of Watson’s behaviorism

* “Empty-organism” approach

*Operant Conditioning*

*Law of Acquisition*

*Reinforcement Schedules*

*Interval*

*Ratio*

*“Empty-organism” approach*

*belief that humans are controlled by forces in the environment*

*Operant Conditioning*

*behavior is emitted from an organism*

Law of Acquisition

*Law of Acquisition*

*strength of an operant behavior is increased when reinforced*

*Reinforcement Schedules*

*partial reinforcement is stronger than continuous*

* *Interval*
* *Ratio*

*Fixed and random types*

Extinction is more difficult

*Interval*

*certain amount of time passes between reinforcements*

*Ratio*

reinforcement occurs after a certain number of times the behavior occurs

Skinner, cont.

*Successive Approximation*

*Instinctive Drift*

*Walden Two*

*Successive Approximation*

*train complex responses by reinforcing behaviors that are closer to the final desired behavior*

*Instinctive Drift*

*instinctive behaviors are stronger than reinforced behaviors*

*Walden Two by B.F. Skinner*

showed how his system can be used to construct a utopian society

Albert Bandura

Social Cognitive Theory

Introduces cognition into learning

Characteristics of models that influence us

*Self-efficacy*

*Social Cognitive Theory*

*learning occurs through observation of models’ behavior and consequences experienced*

\-Vicarious Conditioning

*Self-efficacy*

*feeling of adequacy & competence*

Julian Rotter

Learn through social experience

We are influenced by external stimuli and reinforcement

* Relative influence mediated by cognition

*Locus of Control*

* *Internal LoC: depends on my behavior*
* *External LoC: depends on outside sources*

*Locus of Control*

*beliefs regarding source of reinforcement*

*Internal LoC*

*depends on my behavior*

*External LoC*

*depends on outside sources*

Intro to Gestalt

* Gestalt is German for “shape” or “form”
* Initially interested in perception
* Learning, problem solving, cognition
* Mach, the positivist philosopher
* Described properties of spatial and auditory forms
* “*Form quality”*
* von Ehrenfels
* *Transposability* of melodies

Ernst Mach

* the positivist philosopher
* Described properties of spatial and auditory forms
* “*Form quality”*

“*Form quality*”:

*As perceptual wholes, forms have qualities that distinguish them from their elements (Psychological Permanence)*

von Ehrenfels

*Transposability* of melodies

*Phenomenology*

*the unbiased description of subjective experiences*

Max Wertheimer

*Law of Pragnanz*

The question of apparent movement on a train

* Freidrich Schumann (spatial perception) could not answer

*Demonstration*:

* Schumann (1907): at certain speeds, appears to move
* *Apparent movement*:

*Law of Pragnanz*

*the organizAtion of any whole is as good as the prevailing conditions allow*

*Demonstration*

*a vertical white stripe followed by a horizontal white stripe*

*Apparent movement*

*perception of movement with stationary objects*

Further Studies of Apparent Movement

*Phi Phenomenon*

* This is a psychological experience that is not reducible to its elements
* This is a direct challenge to both structuralism and functionalism

*Phi Phenomenon*

*when lights are separated by 50 to 60 ms, they appear to move from one position to another*

4 Principles of Gestalt Theory

1. *Holistic Thinking*
2. *Phenomenological Basis*
3. *Methodology*
4. *Isomorphism*

*Holistic Thinking*

*the whole is greater than the sum of its parts (supersummativity)*

*Phenomenological Basis*

*Phenomena are the subject matter of psychology*

*Methodology*

*Use lifelike (reality) experiments with small numbers of subjects*

*Isomorphism*

*Psychological processes are directly related to biological processes*

Further Support

Edgar Rubin (1915): ambiguous figures

* Evidence that perceptions are lively, active, and organized
* Our perceptions appear as wholes, not pieces (as some other schools might suggest)

Gestalt Principles of Perception

*Similarity*: 

*Proximity:*

*Closure:*

* *Good Gestalts: closure allows us to see a whole*

*Continuity:*

*Similarity*

*Equal and similar elements form groups or wholes*

*Proximity*

*elements that are close together tend to be grouped*

*Closure*

*our ability to “fill in” missing pieces*

*Good Gestalts*

*closure allows us to see a whole*

*Continuity*

*connect elements in a way that makes them seem continuous or flowing in a particular direction*

Kurt Koffka

* published the 1st article in English on Gestalt psychology
* founded the “*Psychological Research*” with Wetheimer and Kohler

Wolfgang Köhler

Problem-solving in chimps

* Argue against Thorndike’s trial and error

*Learning experiments*

*Figural aftereffects*

*Detour problem*

* Problem-solving with sticks: use the stick as a tool to get food

*Insight learning*

*Isomorphism*

*Figural aftereffects*

a class of perceptual illusions that was implied directly by his isomorphic theory

*Learning experiments*

*organism perceives elements of a solution to arrive at the solution*

*Detour problem*

*direct access to a goal is blocked, so Ss must make a detour*

*Insight learning*

*“appearance of a complete solution with reference to the whole lay-out of the field”*

*Solutions are based on a restructuring of the problem*

* Does not depend on rewards
* Positive transfer from one problem to another

Characteristics of Insight Studies

In animals enclosures/cages

* Problem solving occurs when comfortable

Tested animals in the presence of others

* Allowed for observational learning & imitation

Report results descriptively

Kurt Lewin

Came from Germany to avoid Hitler

* Mother and Sister died in concentration camp

*Father of Social Psychology*

* Pioneer in social reform and social change
* Discrimination research
* *Group Dynamics*

__I/O Psychology__

* Worker efficiency and satisfaction

*Group dynamics*

*the empiracal study of interaction within groups, and of group productivity as a function of group structure*

Research Center for Group Dynamics

4 areas

* Increase group productivity
* Communication and the spread of rumor
* Social perception & interpersonal relations
* Leadership training
* Commission on Community Interrelations
* Racial discrimination in employment
* Effects of integrated & segregated housing on racial attitudes

Antecedents ---Early psychiatrists had 2 camps:

Early psychiatrists had 2 camps:

* *Psychic:*
* *Somatic*:

*Psychic*

*emotional or psychological problems led to abnormal behavior*

*Somatic*

*physical maladies are responsible for abnormal behavior*

* Psychoanalysis grew out of a revolt against this view

Development of Psychoanalysis

*Grew out of traditions of medicine and psychiatry*

* *Methods: observation*
* *Interests: psychopathology & unconscious*

*Freud’s interests were not new*

* Wundt & dreams
* Albert Moll & childhood sexuality
* “Sexologists”

Freud’s Beginning

Medical school in hopes of research

Josef Breuer & Anna O.

* Hysteria with paralysis, memory loss, disturbances in vision and speech
* “Talking cure”
* Charcot told him about the role of sex in hysterical behavior

Stopped using hypnosis - it didn’t work long-term.

Freud’s Therapeutic Methods

*Catharsis*

*Free Association*

* Unconscious thoughts expressed freely.
* Childhood memories, many concerned sex

*Dream Analysis*

* *Manifest content*
* *Latent content*

*Resistance*

*Repression*

* The cornerstone of psychoanalytic theory

*Catharsis*

*deal with a complex by recalling it to consciousness and expressing it*

*Free Association*

*patient says anything that comes to mind*

* Unconscious thoughts expressed freely.
* Childhood memories, many concerned sex

*Dream Analysis*

 *interpret dreams to uncover unconscious conflicts*

* *Manifest content*: *what is happening*
* *Latent content: what it means*

*Resistance*

*When free association stops flowing, memories are too painful to be dealt with*

*Repression*

\
*excluding unacceptable ideas, memories, and desires*

* The cornerstone of psychoanalytic theory

Psychoanalysis & Personality

Levels of Personality

* *Id: hedonistic*
* *Pleasure principle*
* *Superego: morality & conscience*
* Develops out of the Oedipus Complex
* From parents and social norms
* *Ego: mediator*
* *Reality Principle*

*Id:*

*hedonistic*

* *Pleasure principle*

*Superego:*

*morality & conscience*

* *Develops out of the Oedipus Complex*
* *From parents and social norms*

*Ego:*

*mediator*

* *Reality Principle*

*Anxiety*

*warning that ego is being threatened*

*Defense Mechanisms*

*unconscious denials or distortions of reality to ease anxiety*

* Projection
* Denial
* Repression