Approaches

Stimulus

Anything internal or external that brings about a change

Response

Any reaction in the presence of the stimulus

Reinforcement

The process by which a response is strengthened

Classical conditioning

Learning through association: a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired so a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.

UCS

Unconditioned stimuli - stimuli that automatically triggers a response

UCR

Unconditioned response - an unlearned, natural response to the UCS

NS

Neutral stimulus - stimulus that does not elicit a response prior to conditioning

CS

Conditioned stimuli - after association with the UCS, elicits a certain response

CR

Conditioned response - the learned response to a previously neutral response .

Operant conditioning

Learning through reinforcement or punishment

Positive punishment

Adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior

Negative punishment

The removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

Positive reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of a desired behaviour

Negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Social learning

Learning through the observation of others and imitating the behaviours that appear to be rewarded.

Modelling

Learning through the observation of other people (models) which may lead to imitation (repetition) of behaviour.

Mediational process

ATTENTION is payed to the model
RETENTION allows an individual to copy the observed behaviour at a later date
MOTOR REPRODUCTION is the imitation of the behaviour (has to be physically possible)
MOTIVATION can result from direct or indirect (vicarious) reinforcement or punishment

Behavioural genetics

The study of whether a trait runs in families. If it occurs more frequently in those who are related, we assume the trait has a genetic component.

Molecular genetics

The study of gene variants in the DNA sequence that co-occur with disorders or diseases

Genotype

The inherited genetic material that provides the code/instructions for the living organism

Phenotype

How the genetically inherited code is expressed - the resulting, often observable characteristic - which is a result of the interaction between the genotype and the environment

Adaptive

Traits which are useful and are likely to confer increased survival or reproductive success on the carrier are considered adaptive

Traits

Characteristics, or features or behaviours

Evolution

Change over successive generations of the genetic make-up of a particular population.

Natural selection

The process by which inherited characteristics that enhance an individual's reproductive success, or 'fitness' are passed on to the next generation and so become more widespread in the gene pool

Concordance

The degree of 'agreement' or sharing of trait between related individuals

Monozygotic

Identical twins - share 100% of their DNA

Dizygotic

Non-identical twins - share on average 50% of their DNA

Heredity

The passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to another

Pre-dispose

A likelihood / vulnerability

Codes for

Used when describing the role of the DNA / genes. The inherited instructions for a particular feature.

EEA

Era of Evolutionary Adaptation. The lengthy period of time (era) when human life was evolving and humans were developing.

Mutation

Permanent alteration in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene, such that the sequence varies from that seen in most people

Variant

Alteration in the most common nucleotide sequence (used more commonly than mutation).

Correlation

Mathematical measure of the relatedness/relationship of/between two variables

Candidate genes

Genes that are identified as being possible 'candidates' for responsibility for a trait/disorder

Epigenetics

The study of the way in which the environment can alter not the inherited code but the way in which it is read/interpreted. Markers or 'tags' can change the reading of the code such that a different phenotype than would be expected is observed.

Polygenetic

An explanation which suggests that a number of genes work together to confer risk

Neurons

Specialised cells in the brain and nervous system which transmit electrical impulses, enabling thought, speech, movement etc. The average brain contains 100 billion neurons and each neuron in connected to around 1,000 other neurons.

Neurochemistry

The branch of biochemistry concerned with the processes occurring in nerve tissue and the nervous system.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical substances which transmit messages between neurons, at synapses, to enable communication in the nervous system

Synapse

Tiny gap between neuron fibres, where communication between neurons occurs

Synaptic transmission

The process of communication between neurons, governed by neurotransmitters released by the pre-synaptic neuron travelling across the synapse to bind with receptors and cause a change in the electrical potential of the post-synaptic neuron

Impulse

Name often given to the action potential generated in neurons when they reach a particular voltage, which leads to the releasing of neurotransmitters and the potential stimulation of neurons that the cell synapses with.

Vesicles

Where neurotransmitters are stored for release, in the axon terminals of neurons

Receptors

Found on the dendrites of neurons, specialised to enable particular neurotransmitters to bind once the synapse is crossed.

Excitation

Describes the effect of certain neurotransmitters on binding with receptors: increasing the likelihood of the post-synaptic neuron firing/an impulse being generated

Inhibition

Describes the effect of certain neurotransmitters on binding with receptors: decreasing the likelihood of the post-synaptic neuron firing/an impulse being generated

IPSP

Inhibitory post-synaptic potential - a description of the change generated in the electrical potential of the post-synaptic neuron when inhibitory neurotransmitters bind (decreased likelihood of an impulse being generated)

EPSP

Excitatory post-synaptic potential - a description of the change generated in the electrical potential of the post-synaptic neuron when inhibitory neurotransmitters bind (increased likelihood of an impulse being generated)

Dysregulation

The concept that thoughts, behaviours and emotions may differ from the norm if an individual experiences neurochemical imbalance

Dysregulation

Another way of describing an imbalance in neurotransmitters, which could lead to thoughts, behaviours, mood and emotions becoming disordered

Networks

The connectivity of thousands of neurons which communicate to enable our functioning.

Serotonin

Inhibitory neurotransmitter, involved in mood regulation, sleep and eating.

GABA

Inhibitory neurotransmitter -impacts on most neural regions

Noradrenaline

Excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in the stress response and alertness

Dopamine

Excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in learning and reward, attention, memory and movement

Glutamate

Excitatory neurotransmitter, operating widely across the brain. Has some control over the expression of and effects of other neurotransmitters.

Summation/ summated

The process which occurs in a post-synaptic neuron to assess the change in the neuron's voltage as a result of the excitatory and inhibitory effects generated by the binding of the neurotransmitters. If the excitatory effects are great enough to shift the voltage in the cell to the threshold level then the neuron will generate an electrical impulse and further signalling will occur.

Central nervous system

Comprises the brain and spinal cord. It receives signals (information) from the senses and controls the body's responses

Brain

The part of the CNS responsible for integrating and co-ordinating intellectual and all nervous system activity

Cerebral cortex

The outer 'wrinkly' part of the brain. The part of the brain with the most advanced capabilities. Where thinking occurs!

Subcortical structures

Under the cortex. Regions of the brain found here control our more basic functions and automatic responses to situations, including our raw emotions.

Lobes

The cerebral cortex is split into 4 lobes, the frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes. Each covers a distinct, mostly identifiable region of the brain and in normal functioning, carries out distinct functions

Hemispheres

The two 'halves' of the human brain.

Contralateral

Each hemisphere of the brain receives signals from and determines the actions of the opposite side of the body

Functions

The jobs the brain does

Specialised

The preference each hemisphere has for a particular type of processing and particular responsibilities

Region

An area of the brain

Localisation of function

The theory that particular regions of the brain are responsible for specific functions - such as language

Hemispheric lateralisation

The theory that each hemisphere is specialised for distinct ways of processing and particular functions

Plasticity

The knowledge that the brain has the capacity to alter in structure, volume, neuronal capacity or functionality, in response to the environment. This can be negative, in the case of physical or psychological trauma or it can be positive, for instance in the case of cognitive challenge.

Corpus callosum

Bundle of nerve fibres which allows the communication of signals between the two hemispheres

Frontal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement

Parietal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about calculation, spelling, object perception.

Temporal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for memory and language.

Occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

Cognitive

Relates to mental processes such as attention, perception, memory, language, intelligence and reasoning

Cognitive neuroscience

An area of psychology which uses modern brain imaging/scanning methods to consider the underlying neural basis of cognitive functions

Computer model

Refers to the process of using computer analogies as a representation of human cognition.

Inference/inferring

Means reaching a logical conclusion on the basis of evidence and reasoning.

Schema

A cognitive framework that helps to organise and interpret information in the brain. Schemas help an individual to make sense of new information but may not be accurate so they can lead to biased interpretations of events.

Theoretical models

In cognitive psychology, models are simplified, usually pictorial, representations of a particular mental process, based on current research evidence. Theoretical models are therefore theories in pictorial form.

Perception

To become aware of something through the senses - or - the way in which something is regarded, understood, or interpreted

Attention

Notice taken of someone or something or the regarding of someone or something as interesting or important

Cognitive bias

A systematic pattern of deviation from rationality in judgement. Individuals create their own "subjective social reality" from their perception of the input (environment/experience) and this, rather than the objective input, may dictate their behaviour in the social world

Locus of control

Individuals can have a belief about the responsibility for the outcomes of their actions as either dependent on their own actions (internal locus of control) or as dependent on events outside their personal control (external locus of control). It can lead to biased interpretations of events.

Internal working model

Cognitive framework (a schema) comprising mental representations for understanding the world, the self, and others and relationships between

Working memory model

An example of a theoretical model in Cognitive Psychology, where inferences about internal, mental (memory) processes have resulted from research and observations of human behaviour

J.B. Watson's Little Albert Experiment

9 month old infant, Albert was conditioned to be fearful of the rat which he had previously been comfortable with, because a loud, distressing bang was consistently paired with the presence of a white rat.

Timing

If the gap between the NS and UCS is too great (during the acquisition phase), conditioning does not take place

Extinction

Unlike the UCR, the CR does not become permanently established as a response, so this is what happens when the response no longer elicits a response.

Spontaneous recovery

Following extinction, if the CS and UCS are paired again, the link between them is made much more quickly

Stimulus generalisation

Pavlov discovered that once an animal has been conditioned, they will also response to other stimuli that are similar to the CS

Social learning theory

The theory that we learn behaviours by observing others and imitating behaviours that are rewarded.

Identification

A form of influence where an individual adopts an attitude or behaviour because they want to be associated with a particular person or group

Vicarious reinforcement

This is what happens when when learning is not a result of direct reinforcement of behaviour, but through observing someone else being reinforced for that behaviour

A mediational process

Any internal, mental process that exists between environmental stimuli and the response being made by an individual to those stimuli

Bandura et al (1961) SLT experiment

They carried out an experiment involving children who observed an aggressive or non-aggressive adult model playing with a Bobo doll, and were then tested for imitative behaviours in the absence of the model.

Id

Part of the psychodynamic structure of personality: present at birth and works with the pleasure principle