Anatomy Final Review

The plasma (cell) membrane in a muscle cell is called the:

Sarcolemma

A is the area between two z lines; also described as the functional unit of muscle contraction

Sarcomere

List the characteristics of erythrocytes

They are red blood cells, contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen

What is the role of ACh in terms of impulse (AP) transmission?

Opens the ion channels in post-synaptic neuron

What happens to your blood in pH if you hold your breath?

Increase CO2= Increase H+ = Decrease pH

Define aneurysm

A weakening of a blood vessel causing it to expand or burst

Describe the function of the neuroglial cells

They provide protection and support to neurons

What is the pericardium’s function?

Prevent over-distention of the heart

What do we call our body’s ability to recognize its own tissues and not attack them?

Immunological tolerance (Self-tolerance)

List the structures involved in a reflex arc in order

Receptor > sensory neuron > association neuron > integrating center > motor neuron > effector

What happens to salivation when regulated by the sympathetic NS

Decrease (mouth goes dry when scared)

Describe the function of the limbic system

Regulates the emotions and related behaviors

Describe the characteristics of the medulla

White matter, attaches brain to spinal cord, decussation of spinal cord

Muscle Fibers that fatigue easily are called:

Fast/white fibers

Describe the functions of killer T-cells

Directly destroy pathogens by releasing perforin

List the function of the vagus cranial nerve

Regulates abdominal organ activity

List the characteristics of cones in the retina

They are concentrated in the fovea centralis

The main neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction for muscle contraction is:

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Describe the function of the cerebrum

Produces conscious thought, intellect, motor activities (high level thinking skills)

List the structures found in the CNS

Brain (cerebrum, medulla, pons, cerebellum, midbrain) and spinal cord

Describe the function of the cerebrospinal fluid

Circulates nutrients/waste as part of the blood-brain barrier,

Describe the function of an axon of a neuron

Conducts impulses (AP) away from the CNS

What is the pacemaker of the heart

SA Node

Does continuous conduction of action potentials occur i unmylelinated or myleelinated axons?

Unmyelinated (because every region of the axon needs to undergo an AP)

What two factors determine the rate of an AP?

Diameter of axon and prescence/abscence of myelin sheath

State the function of prolactin

Initiates milk production

What is the name of the photopigment found in the rods?

Rhodospin

Trace the path of an AP through the heart

SA Node > AV Node > bundle of HIS > bundle branches > Purkinje fibers

Describe the function of a dendrite of a neuron

Conducts an impulse (AP) toward the soma (cell body)

Describe the symptoms of Glaucoma

Loss of peripheral vision, pressure of over 25mmHg

What is the function of the AV valves in the heart?

Prevent backflow of blood

Describe what the QRS segment of an EKG respresents

Ventricular depolarization

Describe the difference between the ANS and somatic nervous system

ANS is

Describe the function of the cerebellum

Controls muscle tone, coordination and balance

Describe the concentration of + and - ions inside and outside of a neuron during an AP

Inside - more positive charge; outside - more negative charge

Describe the functions of the circulatory system

Provide immunity, transport substances such as blood/hormones, help maintain body temp

Define hemopoiesis

Production of formed elements found in the blood

What is the body’s first line of defense in terms of immunity?

Skin

Auditory receptors (ciliated cells) for sensations are found where?

In the organ of Corti (spiral organ)

Which of the following is not an endocrine gland? Sweat, adrenal, parathyroid, pituitary or pineal?

Sweat - is an exocrine gland

Define hematocrit

Measurement of the % of erythrocytes in whole blood

Describe the difference between a first and second encounter with an antigen in terms of antibody production

First, you get suck because you have no immunity. Second time, antibodies are a,ready produced and released quickly so you don’t get sick

What happens to the ciliary muscles and lens when you look at a distant object?

The ciliary muscles relax, lens is flattened

What does the ‘all-or-nothing’ principle state?

That an action potential is triggered when a threshold stimulus is applied

In a quadriplegic, what region of the spinal cord is injured?

Anything in the cervical region or above

What is the function of capillaries?

Allow blood to exchange materials with the internal environment

List the function of the trochlear cranial nerve

Eye movements

What two hormones are responsible for regulating blood calcium levels?

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin

Define otoliths

Particles of calcium carbonate found in the inner ear to maintain balance

What division of the nervous system prepares the body for fight of flight (anxiety or stess)?

Sympathetic nervous system

Pulmonary arteries carry blood where in relation to the heart?

Away from the heart to the lungs, but the blood is deoxygenated

What is the area of the retina that does not produce an image called?

Optic disc (blind spot)

List the function of the hypoglossal cranial nerve

Tongue movements

List the fucntion of the olfactory cranial nerve

Smell

What happens to the respiratory muscles during expiration?

Diaphragm relaxes and moves upward into the thoracic cavity, intercostals pull rib cage up

The molecule that most directly supplies energy for muscle contraction is called:

ATP

What are the endocrine cells in the pancreas called

Islets of Langerhans

What prevents blood loss in a damaged blood vessel?

1. Formation of platelet plug
2. Coagulation
3. vascular spasm

\

Define accomodation

The automatic adjustment of lens curvature by the ciliary muscles that focus light waves on the retina

What inner eat structure maintains balance during rotation?

Semi-circular canals

Muscle fibers that contain many blood vessels and mitochondria and have high concentrations of myoglobin are called:

Slow twitch muscle fibers

The organelle that stores calcium in a skeletal muscle fiber at rest is called:

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

What two substances are absolutely necessary for the actual muscle to contract

ATP and calcium

In a paraplegic, what region of the spinal cord is injured?

Anything below the cervical region

If a mother and her fetus have an incompatible Rh factor, what disorder can result?

Erythroblastosis fetalis

What do the Korotkoff sounds mean when taking blood pressure?

1st sound in the systolic pressure, 2nd is the diastolic pressure

What are three functions of muscles?

movement, posture, and stability

Identify the function of the following muscle organelles: sarcolemma, sarcoplasmic reticulum, sarcoplasm

\

1. __Sarcolemma__: cell membrane, conduct electrical signals ; __Sarcoplasmic__ __reticulum__: endoplasmic reticulum, stores calcium ions ; __Sarcoplasm__: cytoplasm ; 

\

The release of this substance at the neuromuscular junction starts muscle contraction

Release of acetylcholine (ACh)

Describe what a sarcomere is. What structure is it found between?

A sarcomere is the unit of muscle contraction and it is found in between the z lines in a muscle fiber

What substances are necessary for muscle contraction to start and continue?

ACh, sodium, potassium, myosin, and actin

Describe the conditions of a muscle when at rest.

When a muscle is at rest the troponin and tropomyosin reattach to actin and the myosin and actin are separated.

Define tetanus and treppe in terms of muscle contraction

Tetanus is tension of the muscle without relaxation. Treppe is more efficient muscle contractions (stairs).

Define isometric and isotonic contraction

Isometric contraction means no movement because the force is less than the load. Isotonic contraction means movement because the force is greater than the load.

Describe what happens to the thin and thick filaments during muscle contraction according to the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction

The ATP causes the thick filaments (myosin) to attach to the thin filaments (actin) and pulls towards the center of the sarcomere

List the four proteins that are associated with myofilaments

Actin, myosin, troponin, tropomyosin.

Describe the amount of blood vessels, mitochondria and myoglobin found in slow and fast muscle fibers.

__Slow__: more mitochondria, more myoglobin, and many blood vessels ; __Fast__: less mitochondria, less myoglobin, few blood vessels. 

What type of muscle cells fatigue easily?

Fast twitch muscles fatigue easily

Define synergistic and antagonistic muscles.

Synergistic muscles are muscles that work together and connect at joints. Antagonistic muscles are muscles that oppose the action of another muscle.

Define origin and insertion of muscles.

__Origin__: muscle’s proximal attachment ; __Insertion__: muscle’s distal attachment

Describe the function of neuroglial cells

__Neuroglial__ __cells__: do not produce impulses, play a supportive role, miotic (can divide).

Describe the function of the dendrite, myelin sheath and axon of a neuron.

__Dendrite__: conduct impulses toward the cell body ; __Myelin__ __sheath__: provides insulation and speeds up impulses; __Axon__: conduct impulses away from the cell body.

Describe the concentration of (+) and (-) ions inside and outside of a neuron during an action potential.

During an action potential it starts out with more + on the outside and more - on the inside until depolarization starts and the Na+ channels open and it becomes more + inside.

Describe what happens during repolarization of a neuron

During repolarization Na+ channels close and K+ channels open and the K+ rushes out making the outside more + and inside more - again.

List the structures found in the central nervous system.

Brain, spinal cord.

Describe what white matter in the CNS is composed of

It's a bundle of myelinated axons, dendrites, and neuroglia.

Describe the characteristics of the medulla.

Most superior portion of the spinal cord, contains groups of axons that connect superior brain to inferior spinal cord, regulation of consciousness and wake/sleep cycle.

Describe the function of the cerebellum and cerebrum, limbic system and CSF.

__Cerebrum__: controlling and processing info from opposite sides of the body (left: reading, writing, math)(right: controls spatial and artistic intelligence) ; __limbic system__: regulates behavior (four F’s, feeding, fleeing, fighting and sexual behavior (fucking) ; __Cerebellum__: timing and coordination ; __CSF__: provides protection

List the functions of the following cranial nerves: optic, olfactory, hypoglossal, vagus, trochlear, trigeminal.

__Optic__: vision ; __olfactory__: smells ; __hypoglossal__: the tongue, controls tongue movements ; __vagus__: impulses from throat, larynx, abdominal and thoracic viscera, promote digestion, heart activity, swallowing, and sound production ; __trochlear__ : superior oblique eye muscle, supplies fibers for 1 eye muscle to move the eye ; __trigeminal__  : the skin of the face, nose, mouth and surface of eyes, fibers that activate the chewing muscles.

In a quadriplegic, what region of the spine is injured? In a paraplegic?

A quadriplegic: C4-C6 vertebrae ; Paraplegic: T6-L1 vertebrae.

Define reflex.

 Reflex: involuntary muscle response/movement

List the structures involved in a reflex arc in order.

Structures in a reflex arc(in order): Receptor, Sensory Neuron, Integrating Center, Motor Neuron, Effector

Describe the difference between the ANS and somatic nervous system

__ANS__: consists of the parasympathetic NS and the sympathetic NS (involuntary) ; __Somatic NS:__ relays info from skin and skeletal muscles (voluntary)

What division of the nervous system prepares the body for fight or flight (anxiety or stress)?

Sympathetic NS

What happens to salivation and digestion when regulated by the sympathetic NS?

Decrease in digestion, decrease in salivation

List the characteristics of cones in the retina.

Less sensitive to light

What is the name of the photopigment found in the rods?

Rhodospin

What is function of the lens?

Shape determines how light bends

What happens to the ciliary muscles and lens when you look at a distant object?

Ciliary muscles and lens become thin and flat for less refraction to create a longer focal length for distant vision.

What is the area of the retina that does not produce an image called?

Optic Nerve