BOH4M

Personality

All the qualities or characteristics which make a person a distinctive individual.

OCEAN

Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism

HEXACO personality

Personality model that measures six dimensions of human behavior: Honesty-Humility, Emotionality, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience.

Myers & Briggs Type Indicator

* Extroversion v Introversion
* Sensing v Intuition
* Thinking v Feeling
* Judging v Perceiving
* Critics: MBTI - Neither Myers or Briggs have degrees in psychology Tests provide generalizations Tests are based on self-reporting

Stephenson’s Bird Personality (DOPE)

* evaluates people on their level of assertiveness and emotionality
* Dove: Harmony
* Owl: Detail-oriented
* Peacock: Excitement
* Eagle: Results

Other personality factors

Culture, family, social, lived experiences

Perception

The process through which people receive, organize and interpret information The way we form impressions The way we process info

Attribution Errors

Overestimates internal factors and underestimates external factors as influence on someone’s behavior.

Self-serving bias

Explains personal success by internal causes and personal failures by external causes.

Stereotypes

When attributes commonly associated with a group are assigned to an individual.

Projection

The assignment of personal attributes to other individuals.

Halo effect

Occurs when one attribute is used to develop an overall impression of a person or situation.

Manager

A person who supports, activates and is responsible for the work of others

Hierarchy of Organizations

Top, middle, frontline, employees

Functions of management

Planning, organizing, leading, controlling

Katz Essential management skills (Robert Katz 1970)

Technical, human relations, critical thinking

Mintzberg managerial skills (Henry Mintzberg 1990)

* Interpersonal: figurehead, leader, liason
* Informational: spokesperson, disseminator, monitor
* Decisional: entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocater, negotiatior

Classical management

Assumes that people at work are primarily driven by economic concerns

Assumption: people are rational

Scientific management creator?

Frederick Taylor in 1911, aka Taylorism

Scientific management

Believes that *business prosperity* is maximized when careful selection and training of workers is emphasized. ***Frederick Taylor*** pioneered the science of reducing a task to its basic **physical motion** for **efficiency**.

4 principles of scientific management

1. Every job has a science
2. Select workers with the right abilities for the job
3. Carefully train workers
4. Plan the work and remove obstacles

Administrative principles creator?

Henri Fayol (1916) French Engineer/Mgr

Administrative management

Theorized formalized organizational structures and developed guidelines on how management interacts with employees.

Henri Fayol's 14 Principles of Management

1. Division of Work - Assigning tasks to individuals based on their skills.
2. Authority - Managers must have the power to give orders.
3. Discipline - Rules must be enforced to maintain order.
4. Unity of Command - Each employee must have only one boss.
5. Unity of Direction - All employees must work towards the same goal.
6. Subordination of Individual Interest - Company goals come first.
7. Remuneration - Compensation should be fair and just.
8. Centralization - Decisions should be made by top management.
9. **Scalar Chain - A clear hierarchy should be established**.
10. Order - Everything should have its place.
11. Equity - Managers should treat employees fairly.
12. Stability - Employee turnover should be minimized.
13. Initiative - Encouraging employees to take on new tasks.
14. Esprit de Corps - Promoting team spirit and unity.

Beaurocratic Org creator

Max Weber (1919) German Sociologist

Beaurocratic organization

Theorized that organizations should be founded on principles of logic, order and legitimate authority, not relationships.

Principles of Bureaucratic Theory

1. Authority Hierarchy
2. Formal Rules and Regulations
3. Division of Labour (Specializations)
4. Impersonality
5. Career Orientation
6. Formal Selection Process

Disadvantages of bureaucratic org

* “Red tape”
* Too many levels of management
* Slow to respond
* Employee apathy
* Discourages innovation

Behavioural management

Emphasizes the human side of the workplace in management.

Creators of Behaviour Management theories?

**Behaviour Management** 

People are social and self-actualizing

**Hawthorne Studies**

Elton Mayo & Western Electric Company (1924)

**Organizations As Communities** 

Mark Parker Follett (1918)

**Theory of Adult Personality** 

Chris Argyris

Hawthorne Studies

Western Electric Company theorized that lighting conditions affect work output.

**Results**: 

* No correlation *(between lighting and output)*
* Social settings increased productivity
* People mattered

Hawthorne effect

Employees perform better when singled out for attention or feel that management is concerned about their welfare.

Orgs as communities

Managers and employees should work without one party dominating the other.

* Team work
* Employee ownership
* Corporate social responsibility

Adult personalities

Managers who treat people as responsible adults, will achieve the highest productivity.

Argyris’s criticisms of classical management

Specialization →  limits opportunities for growth

Hierarchy of authority → creates dependent and passive employees

Micromanagement→ creates absenteeism, apathy and low morale

Organizational culture

* system of shared **assumptions, values, and beliefs**, which governs how people **behave** in organizations


* influences the people in the organization and dictates how they **dress, act, and perform** their jobs.
* Every organization develops and maintains a unique culture, which provides **guidelines and boundaries for the behavior** of the members of the organization.

Organizational culture levels

Observational and core

Core values objectives

Relevance – core values support key performance objectives

Pervasiveness – core values should be known by all members

Strength – core values should be accepted by everyone involved.

Vision vs mission

vision = future, mission = past

CSR components

Sustainibility, transparency, social audit

Org stakeholders

Any persons, groups or other organizations directly affected by the behaviour of the organization.

Leadership theories

Being able and prepared to inspire others to work to accomplish tasks.

Trait leadership creator

Shelley Kirkpatrick Edwin Locke (1991)

Trait leadership

Founded in the idea that leaders are born with certain traits.


1. **Drive (determination)**
2. Motivation
3. Creativity
4. **Honesty & integrity**
5. Flexibility
6. Business knowledge
7. **Self-confidence**
8. **Cognitive ability (intelligence)**

Leadership power theory (John French, Bertram Raven (1959))

Breaks down sources of power into 2 categories: Positional and Personal

Positional power

Power based on things managers can offer to others.

Personal power

Power based on how a leader’s unique personal qualities are viewed by others.

Reward power

Having something of value to offer.

* raises
* bonuses
* promotions
* special assignments

Coercive power

The ability to punish or withhold positive outcomes. 

* Reprimands
* Penalties
* Termination

Legitimate power (50th flashcard!)

Formal authority or the rights of office.

Relational power

The ability to function well as a team.

Referent power

The capacity to influence others because they admire you.

Blake and Mouton grid

Transformational leadership

Is the inspirational leadership that gets people to do more towards achieving high performance; it encourages extraordinary effort

A transformational leader raises aspirations and shifts people and organizations into new, high performance patterns

Transformational leader qualities

Vision, charisma, symbolism, empowerment, intellectual stimulation, integrity

Emotional intelligence

* Defined as the ability to manage ourselves and our relationships effectively


* Team performance improves as a result of a more “emotionally- intelligent” leader
* “EQ” vs IQ
* Emotional Quotient

Qualities of Emotional Intelligence

* **High Self-Awareness**
* understanding our own moods and emotions, and understanding their impact on our work and on others.


* **Self-Regulation**/Self-Management
* thinking before we act and controlling otherwise disruptive impulses.


* **Motivation** & Persistence
* working hard with persistence and for reasons other than money and status.


* **Empathy**/Good Relationship Management
* understanding the emotions of others and using this understanding to better relate to them.


* **Social skill**/High Social Awareness
* establishing rapport with others and building good relationships and networks.

Transactional leadership

* Is the leadership that focuses on tasks, rewards and structures


* This type of leader is more methodical in keeping others focused on progress toward goal accomplishment
* Focused more on **task** (vs people)

Gender leadership

* Both men and women can be equally successful leaders


* Women managers tend to be more participative than males
* Followers tend to value participating by female leaders more highly than male leaders

Difference in leadership approaches for male and female leaders

* Male leaders tend to take a more transactional approach while women leaders tend to take a more transformational approach


* Women try to build consensus and good interpersonal relations through communication – interactive leadership

Male leadership

* often prefer “male-oriented” settings (math, science and law enforcement)
* are more direct, critical and speak with authority
* work more independently


* trust their logic when making decisions
* are more confident with their work
* use less positive reinforcement
* like to create competition
* often the formal leaders
* more accepting of women leaders

Female leadership

* Women prefer “female-oriented” settings (health and education)
* Women enjoy mentoring and training others


* Women trust their instincts when making decisions
* Women discuss and review work with colleagues
* Women are more nurturing
* Women are more critical of other women

Charismatic leadership

develops special leader-follower relationships

Charismatic leadership 7 qualities

1. Strength of personality
2. Vision
3. Simplified speech
4. Having strong feelings and making others share in your emotions
5. Creation of emotional bonds
6. Search for the spotlight
7. Claim higher principles

Limitations/Disadvantages of Charismatic Leaders

* The “unchallenged levels of obedience” leads to weak “yes” men/women


* People possessing true charismatic leadership qualities are relatively rare
* Tendency towards narcissism; insensitive to others
* Unpredictable; potentially dangerous to organization

Strengths/Benefits of Charismatic Leaders

* Results in relatively strong, unchallenged levels of obedience


* Useful in difficult times such as an organizational turnaround
* Very effective if the vision of the charismatic leader is right
* Lots of energy; visionary; inner clarity

Empowerment

distributes decision-making power throughout an organization

EE

* Underlying assumption is that if the individual becomes more effective, more involved, more skilled – the total organization will also improve.


* Is a technique for unleashing human potential.
* Management is responsible for creating a supportive climate and removing barriers to EE
* The challenge is to empower the employee to take the initiative and responsibility **at all levels** and **functions** of the organization.

Keys to EE

* Delegating power
* Shared visions of the future
* EE are more proactive.
* For EE to work: it must be genuine. 
* EE is not a magic solution to ‘fix’ all organizational issues BUT
* The act of empowering others creates a **positive relationship** and **builds referent power.**

EE issues

* How ‘genuine’ is ‘genuine’ – define


* EE is the opposite to how __traditional__ management/organizations run their businesses
* Employees like it, BUT do not want to be held personally responsible/accountable

Teamwork definition

The process of people working together to accomplish set goals

Roles for managers to master leading team

```javascript
1. Leader
The appointed head of a formal work unit.


2. Facilitator
A peer leader and network hub for a project


3. Team Member
A helpful contributing member of a team

4. Coach
The external convenor of problem-solving team staffed by others
```

Teamwork Pros

\
* More resources


* Improved creativity
* Greater commitment to tasks
* **Synergy**: the creation of a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts.

Teamwork Cons

* Lack of trust
* Personality conflict
* Differences in work styles
* Too many meetings
* **Social loafing**: free riding in groups

Critical zone (teamwork stages)

The place where success/failures in teamwork can have long lasting effects (Storming/Norming)

Team building

The deliberate process of turning a group of individuals into a cohesive team.

Cohesiveness

The degree to which members want to remain part of a team.

Improved by: 

* Increase interaction among members
* Decrease team size
* Reward as a team, not individual

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When is it best to use teams?

* The work or task requires multiple persons to complete


* To permit members to gain new expertise and experience and to develop/educate members
* To allow involvement for those familiar with the topic/task
* To build commitment (increased participation in decision-making)
* To build consensus/commitment on a controversial issue
* To work on a problem not attributed to one person
* When rewards are based on team performance
* When time is not an issue
* To allow for creativity and innovation

Organizational change

The actions in which a company or business alters a major component of its organization

Change agent

Someone who is responsible for changing the existing pattern of behaviour.

Top down vs. bottom up change

Senior levels of management vs. employees w/o positional authority

Targets for change

1. Nature of work
2. People Org
3. Culture
4. Technology
5. Org Structure

Trends in change

automation, skills, diversity

Job

A collection of tasks performed in support of organizational objectives.

Job design

* The process of creating or defining jobs by assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups.
* Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result.

Job design alternatives

* Vary along a continuum ranging from high to low task specialization.


* High specialization ⇒ job simplification
* Moderate specialization ⇒ rotation and enlargement
* Low specialization ⇒ job enrichment

Job simplification

* Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks.
* Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth.
* Automation
* Total mechanization of a job.
* Most extreme form of job simplification.

Advantages

* Easier and quicker training of workers.
* Workers are less difficult to supervise.
* Workers are easier to replace.
* Development of expertise in doing repetitive tasks.

Disadvantages

* Productivity suffers.
* Cost increases due to absenteeism/turnover of unhappy workers.
* Poor performance may result from worker boredom/alienation.

Job rotation and job enlargement (+ adv & dis)

Horizontal loading.

Advantages

* Less monotony
* More satisfaction
* Leads to better productivity

Disadvantages

* Continued lack of motivation
* Not meeting Herzberg motivation needs
* Increased stress
* Time, training ($)
* Difficulty with change (e.g with job rotation)

Job enrichment (+ adv & dis)

* Building more opportunities for satisfaction in a job by expanding its content.
* Expands both job scope and job depth.
* Frequently accomplished through vertical loading.

Advantages

* Allows social & motivational needs to be satisfied
* Employee empowerment & results (satisfaction; productivity)
* Challenge
* Higher performance

Disadvantages

* Compensation & rewards must be planned carefully (and match empowered employees)
* Timing – allocate enough
* Boundaries of Employee Empowerment (clear)
* Core job characteristics:
* Skill variety.
* Task identity.
* Task significance.
* Autonomy.
* Feedback.

Alternative work arrangements

* Compressed workweek
* Flexible working hours
* Telecommuting
* Job sharing
* Work sharing
* Part time work

Stressors (and examples)

* Anything that causes stress.
* Personal factors: family, debt, relationships
* Work factors: long hours, excessive emails, unrealistic deadlines, difficult bosses or coworkers, unfamiliar work, change

Sources of work stress

* a lack of time or excessive work


* poor relationships w/ coworkers
* too many hours
* fear of injury
* the threat of job loss

Constructive stress

* Just enough stress to encourage increased effort and performance.
* The “pressure” of a looming deadline

Destructive stress

* When stress breaks down physical and mental systems including:
* Physical - headaches, chest pain, insomnia, indigestion
* Psycho-social - anxiety, irritability, anger, apathy
* Behavioral - procrastination, “self-medication”, poor hygiene, isolation, compulsive behaviors

Conflict types

### Substantive

* Disagreement over goals, resources, rewards, policies, procedures and job assignments

### Emotional

* Results from feelings of anger, distrust, dislike, fear and personality clashes

Benefits of conflict

1. Create new ideas
2. See different perspectives
3. Learn about yourself
4. Practice communication

**TKI Conflict Management (Thomas-Kilmann)**

* Considers a person's behaviour during conflict on 2 dimensions:
* Assertiveness
* Cooperativeness
* Competing
* Avoiding
* Collaborating
* Accommodating
* Compromising

Corporate avoidance

Decreased productivity

Employee turnover

Unhealthy confrontation

Divided teams

Why people embrace change (100th flashcard!)

1. Learn new things
2. Help the organization succeed
3. New opportunities
4. Possible new job
5. A chance to have input into the changes