ap psych unit 2: modules 31-41

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier (example: fill-in-the-blank test)

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned (example: multiple-choice test)

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

storage

the process of retaining encoded info over time

retrieval

the process of getting info out of memory storage

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of info processing for many functions

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory info in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone # while calling, before the info is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent & limitless storehouse of the memory system — (knowledge, skills, experience)

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory & visual info, & of info retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memory

retention of facts & experiences that one can consciously know & “declare” (aka declarative memory)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention & conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental info, such as space, time, & frequency, of well-learned info, such as word meanings

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (aka nondeclarative memory)

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds & words can still be recalled within 3-4 seconds

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery & organizational devices

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice that yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, info

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

proactive interference

old interferes with new info

retroactive interference

new interferes with old info

forgetting curve (Hermann Ebbinghaus)

forgetting is initially very rapid & then levels off over time

repression (Freud)

painful memories are banished to the unconscious mind

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment

confirmation bias

a tendency to eagerly search for info that confirms, instead of refutes, our ideas

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective

mental set

the tendency to repeat solutions that have worked in the past

functional fixedness

the tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed or unchanging

gamblers fallacy

a failure to recognize the independence of chance events, leading to the mistaken belief that one can predict the outcome of a chance event on the basis of the outcomes of past events

the monty hall problem

probability puzzle

stereotype threat (Claude Steele)

self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts & general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (other is episodic memory)

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (other is semantic memory)

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories — of facts and events — for storage

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

cerebellum

plays a key role in forming & storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning

basal ganglia

facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills

flashbulb memory

a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning & memory (physical basis for memory)

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues & contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it (memories are context-dependent)

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) & first (primacy effect) items in a list

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in your memory

framing

the way an issue is presented

belief bias

the tendency for our beliefs to distort our logic

belief perserverance

clinging to one’s beliefs in the face of contrary evidence (cognitive anchor)

concepts

mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or ppl

cognition

mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, & remembering

prototypes

a best example of a category (stereotype)

algorithm

a step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a problem (can be laborious)

heuristics

a rule-of-thumb strategy (speedier but more error prone)

insight

a sudden “Aha!” moment; sudden realization of a solution to a problem

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve info from one’s past

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

misinformation effect

occurs when misleading info has distorted one’s memory of an event

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where info was learned or imagined (aka source misattribution)

deja vu

that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

SQ3R

survey, question, read, retrieve, review

creativity

the ability to produce new & valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the best single solution

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

representativeness heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant info

overconfidence

the tendency to become more confident than correct — to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs & judgements

language

our spoken, written, or signed words & the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word (such as a prefix)

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with & understand others

babbling stage

the stage of speech development in which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language (~4 months)

one-word stage

the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words (~1-2 years old)

two-word stage

the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements (~2 years old)

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns & verbs

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by damage of the left hemisphere of the brain (Broca’s area or Wernicke’s area)

broca’s area

helps control language expression, an area in the frontal lobe (speaking words)

wernicke’s area

a brain area involved in comprehension & expression; usually in the left temporal lobe (hearing words)

linguistic determinism

the strong form of Whorf’s hypothesis — that language controls the way we think & interpret the world around us

linguistic influence

the weaker form of “linguistic determinism” — the idea that language affects thought (culture affects our thinking & world view”

intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, & use knowledge to adapt to new situations

flynn effect

generational rise in IQ

factor analysis

identify clusters of related test items (verbal, spatial, etc.) statistically

3 types of intelligence (Robert Sternberg)

practical (the ability to get along in different contexts); creative (the ability to come up with new ideas); analytical (the ability to evaluate info & solve problems)

aptitude tests

predict your ability to learn a new skill (your future performance); ex: a college entrance exam

achievement tests

designed to reflect what you have learned (your current performance); ex: a midterm or final for class

self-efficacy

a personal belief in your own abilities to succeed (or not) in a challenging situation

reliability

test yields dependable scores (when you are retested)

validity

the test actually measures what it is supposed to measure (when you are retested)

confirmation bias

selectively attending to or recalling info that supports the belief

multiple intelligences (Howard Gardner)

visual-spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, naturalistic, intrapersonal, and possibly existential

general intelligence (g factor)

according to Charles Spearman & others, underlies all mental abilities & is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing (mostly seen in males and those with autism)

grit

passion & perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understands, manage, & use emotions

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes & comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age