Psych 311 Exam 2 Nagaya

What are 2 unique behaviors that have been culturally transmitted in 2 different groups of Japanese macaques? Age-specific differences were noted for one of the behaviors; what were they?

Washing of sweet potatoes ( learned from Imo, was not innately programmed);

Stone play (female, Glance-6476);

The juveniles (young) will play more than the adults. Although it was originally passed down from the old to the young. Males tend to play more than the females as well.

What are 2 key features of cultural transmission?

1)Transfer of info will affect the individual's behavior( increased fitness of survival);

2)Has to occur through teaching or observing

What are 2 forms of learning that are not considered social?

Local enhancement: individual learns on its own but is drawn to the location by the model

Ex: fish 1 attracted to fish 2 location (because they look alike);

Social facilitation: individual learning is enhanced by the presence of a model

ex: starling birds

Consider foraging behavior in capuchin monkeys. Do social facilitation and local enhancement occurs in the experiment described in lecture?

Local enhancement occurs in capuchin foraging.

(They are drawn to where an older capuchin is foraging by seeing how they forage but then learn how to do it on their own)

What is social learning?

Social learning is learning from the models around them

What are 2 different forms of social learning?

Imitation:New behavior involving novel movements

Copying: Behavior does need to be novel or involve new movement, it is merely as it is stated (copying another's movement)

What are 2 examples of imitation that were discussed in lecture and the book?

Older chimp fishing for termites with twig (younger chimp imitates that behavior to get food);

Trainbird pushes a lever to get food

What are 2 examples of copying that were discussed in lecture and the book?

Guppies will copy the choices made by her fellow females when choosing a mate;

A rat will watch another rat hide from a stable fly and will then copy the first rat

What 4 things are required for teaching?

1) instructor

2) student

3) provide an immediate benefit for the student not the teacher

4) transfer new info faster than without teaching

What are 3 modes of cultural transmission? Know examples of each mode.

Vertical: transfer from parent to offspring; Horizontal: transfer between peers ( juvenile to juvenile); Oblique: transfer from unrelated adult to young

What are examples of Vertical Transmission?

1.) Learning a birdsong in finches

2.) Beaching for female dolphins

3.) Sponging for foraging in female dolphins

What is an example of Horizontal Transmission?

Foraging in guppies

What is an example of Oblique Transmission?

Fear of snakes amongst monkeys

Mate choice by female guppies has been shown to be influenced by both cultural transmission and genetic predisposition. How did large (40%) vs. small/moderate (12-24%) differences in orange coloration of males affect female genetic predisposition to choose orange males?

When males differed by large (40%) amounts of orange, copying opportunities didn't change the females' genetic predisposition to choose orange males;

When males differed by small (12%) or moderate (24%) amounts of orange, copying the other female's mate choice overrode the female's innate preference for more orange.

Know the case study of the Vogelkop bowerbird. What do males do to attract a female's attention? [HINT: What is a bower? What are its features?]

They make a bower( a cone shaped love nest) and organize it with piles of colorful decorations to attract a female's attention

Know the case study of the great bowerbird. What do males do to attract a female's attention? [HINT: What is a bower? What are its features?]

They make an avenue- type bower to display courts lined with grey and white objects. They create an optical illusion to make them look larger from the inside of the bower

What are the 2 main types?

Intrasexual: competition between members of one sex (usually males) for access to the other sex;

Intersexual: selection by members of one sex (usually female) of mates of the other sex

Describe how natural selection might select against medium-sized gametes over small or large gametes.

Natural selection may favor small and large gametes more because females produce large gametes while males produce small gametes (this makes females choosier since its harder to produce, and males less choosy because they are abundant)

What is sexual selection?

A type of natural selection that involves a struggle between individuals of one sex for access to the other sex (Darwin)

According to Bateman's principle, why should females be the choosier sex, and what effect does this choosiness have on male reproductive success?

1) Females should be choosier sex because eggs are costly to produce and their reproductive success is more limited than that of males;

2) Greater choosiness of females in mate selection should result in more variability in male reproductive success;

3.) This choosiness makes it more difficult for males to be chosen to mate with females;

Four evolutionary models of female mate choice were discussed in class. Know the names and understand what each proposes. [HINT: 3 models try to explain how natural selection acts on mate choice and 1 model tries to explain the origin of mate Choice.]

1.) Direct benefit

2.) Sensory exploitation/bias

3.) Good genes

4.) Runaway selection

What is the Direct Benefits Model of mate choice?

Male provides gift during courtship (eg: scorpionfly nuptial gift of prey/food for the female), larger the gift size = increase the likelihood of mating

What is the Sensory Bias Model of mate choice?

Female preference for male trait occurs because they are biologically wired for that through ancestor history, it just occurs and the trait will be present because of this preference in evolutionary history (eg: frog chuck call)

What is the Good Genes Model of mate choice?

Female chooses mates best suited for environment/goodness of fit, includes foraging skills, predator fleet, etc (eg: harem size)

What is the Runaway Selection Model of mate choice?

2 separate genes are becoming increasingly associated with each other, trait that female prefers in a male, that trait will become exaggerated over time (if females prefer bright males they will mate with bright males, this preference gene gets passed to offsprings) (eg: stalk eye)

Know the case study of scorpionfly nuptial gifts (i.e. how do females choose males?

what is the direct benefit? how does nuptial gift size affect mating time and sperm

transfer?). What are the female benefits and male costs and behaviors that are

related to this mate choice-related behavior?

- Females choose males that provide large prey (flies, beetles, etc.) during courtship

- Direct benefit = FOOD

- Males that bring no prey are rejected

- The greater the value of the nuptial gift, the longer the male is allowed to mate with the female

- Longer mating time leads to greater sperm transfer

- A female that actively chooses males that bring large nuptial gifts, produce more eggs and have a longer life span

- Due to the nutrition she receives from the nuptial gift and the decrease in time that she spends hunting

- Sexual selection pressures on males to bring large nuptial gifts

- Finding large enough prey for longer mating times with females is time consuming and dangerous for males

- Increased foraging time exposes males to greater risks of predation

- Has resulted in males stealing large prey from one another

Know the case study of pronghorn antelope (i.e. how do harem defense and harem size influence female mate choice? What offspring traits are predicted by harem Size?

- Females tend to choose the male with a larger harem because he will be able to defend them well form outsiders ( be it opposing males or predators)

- The good gene of strength will be passed to the females' offspring

What type of traits are honest indicators of genetic quality?

Some honest indicators are strength and immunity to disease

What is the Hamilton-Zuk hypothesis?

Some animal traits indicate parasite resistance→ indicate healthiness

Know the case study of female stickleback mate choice (i.e. how does male color relate to good genes/health and female preference?). Mate choice is also influenced by the number of MHC (major histocompatibility complex) genes or alleles. How are the presence of these genes detected by fish and what are they indicative of? [HINT: They are a candidate for an honest indicator.] In terms of MHC allele number, what is more attractive to a female stickleback, smaller or larger numbers of alleles? What influences female preference for MHC peptide-containing water? [HINT: Under what circumstances, do females have a stronger preference for MHC peptide containing water?]

- Female stickleback fish prefer brighter males;

- Brighter (redder) stickleback males are healthier;

- Color intensity is positively correlated with a resistance to parasites;

- MHC genes guide the body in identifying "self" versus "foreign" cells;

- Females use odors to determine whether a male is a good MHC match;

- Predicted that animals may prefer mating with others who have a dissimilar MHC;

- Potentially leads to offspring with strong immune systems;

- Female sticklebacks consistently preferred males with a larger number of MHC alleles;

- The number of peptide ligands was the proximate cue being used by females to select males with good genes;

- MHC peptide = chemical cue for MHC allele;

- Below optimum → more peptides;

- Above optimum → less peptides;

Know the hypothetical example of runaway selection using preferred mate color.

1.) Females that prefer brightly colored males will mate with brightly colored males

2.) Offspring will have genes for bright color (expressed in males only) and bright color preference (expressed in females only)

3.) Over time, preferences & coloration may become exaggerated or "runaway"

Know the case study of stalk-eyed flies (i.e. what do females prefer? how did artificial selection for shorter eye stalks in males affect female preference? How did artificial selection for longer eye stalks in males affect female preference?). Which breeding experiment supports the runaway selection model?

- Females prefer males with longer eye stalks

- Females from short-eye lineage preferred male with short eye stalks, even though not selected for preference (agrees with runaway model)

- Females from long eye stalk lineage didn't differ from control females (doesn't agree with runaway model)

- The results of the short eyestalk supports the runaway selection model

Know the hypothetical example of sensory bias using red feather preference.

- Female preference for a male trait occurs because she is already wired to respond (neurobiologically)

- Females that are best able to search out and eat red berries survive and reproduce better

Example: Blue female birds like red berries

- Blue males start expressing red feathers

- Females start preferring males with red feathers

- Due to the fact that females already had a preexisting preference for the color red

Know the case study of Tungara frogs (i.e. how do the 2 species' calls differ? What does the artificial addition of the 'chuck' call do to female call preference in P. coloradum?). What does phylogenetic analysis suggest about the timeline for 'chuck' call production in males and 'chuck' preference in females?

- P. pustulosis and P. coloradum are two different species of tungara frogs

- Males in both species use calls to attract females

- Both species of males show a high frequency whine in their calls, but P. pustulosis ends their call with a low frequency chuck

- When software is used to add a chuck call to the end of pre recorded male coloradum call, coloradum females show a preference for calls that include a chuck

- This suggests that the preference for chucks predated the actual appearance of chucks in the tungara frog species

- Phylogenetic analysis suggest that the preference for chuck calls arose before the chuck call itself

What are 2 forms of learning that are studied in the context of mate choice?

Sexual imprinting - young learn mate preference from parents (eg: red feather on birds' head study)

Classical conditioning - pavlovian

What is sexual imprinting?

Sexual imprinting is when the offspring learns a mating preference based on their parents choice.

What are 2 common ways to study it?

Cross-fostering: influence of adoptive parents mate choice on offspring

Novel-trait: Influence of novel trait introduced in parents of the experiment.

Know the case study of mannikin birds (i.e. the experiment in which a red feather was attached to parent birds in different combinations).

- Based on the case study, the young would grow up to like mates with red feathers

- Males with mother figure with red feather would like females with red feather( as mates)

- Females with father figure with a red feather would prefer future male mates with a red feather

- Birds with both parents with a red feather had a higher chance of liking a mate with a red feather

Know the case study of dendritic spine density in male zebra finches.

- Spine density in dendrites increases during the learning process; if learning has already occurred, the prediction is that spine density in dendrites will be decreased compared to brains from animals actively learning.

- Animals that have already undergone imprinting do not need to rely on additional learning to make a mate choice.

Classical conditioning may be involved in mate choice learning as illustrated in the Japanese quail experiment showing that pairing of a box with mating can increase sperm production in male quail.

Classical conditioning in adulthood can "override" sexual imprinting during juvenile time

Know case study of Japanese quail that determined whether classical conditioning could 'override' sexual imprinting (e.g. when does imprinting occur in these animals? how were training and testing done?).

1.) Sexual imprinting occurs in males as juveniles

2.) Males were trained to associate blond females with mating

3.) Brown females not predictive of mating

4.) Males prefer blonde females even through imprinting was for brown

What are 2 ways that cultural transmission can be involved in mate choice?

1.) Mate-choice copying

2.) Song learning

What is mate-choice copying? How can the effect of this behavior be represented in

terms of % chance of mating if not recently mated (X) and % chance of mating if

recently mated (Y)? What relationship between X and Y predicts an effect? What

relationship predicts no effect?

- Female-mate choice is influenced by preference of other females in the group

- Males probability of being preferred as a mate increases due to being preferred in the past

- X = % chance of mating if not recently mated

- Y = % chance of mating if recently mated

- Mate choice copying effect = Y-X

- Effect is present if Y-X>0

- The greater Y-X, the greater the effect

Know the case study of black grouse (i.e. what is a lek and how does it work? What did the experiment with model grouse show?).

- Mating occurs in mating areas called "leks"

- Males defend small territories and display

- Females "shop" around in groups of different leks

Experiment: model females placed in territories of different males

- Females more interested in mating with males that had mated already, even if it was with models

- Proportion of females choosing an already chosen male increases as the number of hens mating/day increases

What is the relationship between the number of sage grouse hens mating per day and the mean proportion of females that choose a male that has already been chosen?

Does this relationship support mate-choice copying and if so, how?

- When the number of hens mating per day increased, so too did the proportion of females choosing to mate with a male chosen by other females

- This supports mate-choice copying b/c:

1.) Proportion of females choosing an already chosen male increases as the number of hens mating/day increases

Know the case study of cowbirds looking at how song learning influences mate choice.

Cross-fostering experiment: SD juveniles raised with SD adults or IN adults

- Mate preference based on social environment

- Mates copy songs of adults; females prefer songs of adults

- Females could be copying or imprinting at work

Male-male competition is what type of sexual selection?

Male-male competition is a type of intrasexual selection.

What are the 3 types of Male - Male Competition?

Roaring, Cuckoldry, and Interference

Know the case study of roaring in male red deer (i.e. what is roaring an indicator of? How does roaring relate to harem holding status and male interactions?).

Roaring is the main indicator of strength and fighting ability;

Harem holders roar more than those w/o;

Roaring rate increases during approach of another male;

Higher roaring rate, more likely to win;

Roaring contest more common between two stags matched in ability;

How does roaring influence mate access and incidence of injuries?

Roaring maximizes mate access, minimizes injuries

**Harem holders roar more than:

- Non-holders (solitaries)

- Males outside of the rut (mating season)

Know the case study of interference in elephant seals (i.e. what is interference? How does this behavior benefit females? What type of male received the lowest % of total mounts protested?).

1.) Interference: males interfering with another male during a mating attempt

2.) Females solicit interference in order to increase the chance of mating with the most dominant

- Harem = 1 dominant male and 40 females

How does size difference between male and female elephant seals relate to harem size?

The relative size of males increased as harem size increased, but the relative size of females stayed fairly constant

Know the case study of cuckoldry in bluegill sunfish (i.e. what is cuckoldry? What are the 3 male types and their mating strategies?).

Males taking advantage of other males by sneaking in and fertilizing egg during spawning

Bluegill sunfish have 3 male types:

1.) Sneaker - hit and run strategy, sneak between male and female to fertilize eggs, smaller, many short-lived sperm

2.) Satellite - kind of female-like, fertilize eggs when male is away "sneaks in"

3.) Parental - territorial, protective, nest builder, takes care of young, territorial, high quality sperm( but fewer)

What are the 4 types of mating systems discussed in class? What are the relative numbers of males and females involved in each and what consequence does this have on mating success (as shown in Table 8.1)?

1.) Monogamy: single female + single male

2.) Polygyny: multiple females + single male

3.) Polyandry: single female + multiple males

4.) Polygynandry: multiple females + multiple males

What are 2 types of monogamy that are distinguished by whether new mates are involved?

Serial monogamy: new mates every year

Lifetime monogamy: one mate during lifespan of the partner that dies first

- Animals that mate for life: Dik-Dik, Waved Albatross, Black Vulture, Malagasy jumping rat, Shirjleback skink

Know the case study of Oldfield Mice involving 500 burrows (What evidence supports lifetime monogamy as a mating strategy?).

- Genetic analysis revealed that 90% of the offspring in a given family group were fathered by the resident male

- Many females seemed to stay with the same mates across litters

- Lifetime monogamy

Another experiment involving Oldfield Mouse supports the idea that preferred mates result in better reproductive success. How was the study designed and what were the results?

1) Males allowed to choose a preferred female mate from two; half allowed to mate with preferred, half with unpreferred: preferred matings result in more pups after 120 days.

2) Males allowed to choose a preferred mate; naïve males allowed to mate with preferred or unpreferred: both matings result in same number of pups

3) Yes, better fitness with preferred mate; genetic incompatibility and pup-rearing issues could be cause for fewer pups in Part 1.

Under what circumstances does it make sense for males to engage in monogamy?

What hypothesis describes this situation?

1.) Resources are scarce; Males can provide food and defense to offspring; Increase reproductive success;

2.) The Mate-Assistance Hypothesis describes this situation.

Know the case study of prairie voles and monogamy (i.e. How does behavior differ between animals in courtship and after pair bonding?

Friendly to opposite sex during courtship;

Aggressive to opposite sex after pair bonding;

What neurotransmitter molecule is involved and how is activation of the 2 different receptor types involved in pair bond formation and maintenance?

- Dopamine

- Pair bond formation

- D2 but NOT D1 Maintain bond

- D1 = increases aggression to strangers

What are the 2 types of polygamy that can be distinguished by time?

Simultaneous - numerous mates in a given time frame;

Sequential - many short term pair bonds in a breeding system;

What effect does polygamy have on the reproductive success of the sex with more than one mate?

Increases variance in reproductive success of the sex with more than one mate (In polygny, the sex is male)

In polygyny, which sex shows greater variance in reproductive success?

Males show greater variance = more reproductive success

How does polyandry work in Wattled Jacanas birds (i.e. what are male/female behaviors? How do male/female territories compare?)

Males incubated eggs, care for young

- Females compete aggressively for mates

- Females sequential polyandrous

- Females territory larger than male, contain 1-4 territories

- Men care for young and incubate egg

- Female fight over mates

They are traditionally more like males

*male and female roles are not set in stone: who competes for mates and who takes care of the young*

How does female defense polygyny work in the epsilon wasp?

Males stake out the territory of unopened brood cells; wait for females to emerge

What are 3 characteristics of insects that use Defense Polygyny as a mating strategy?

1.) Females have a short lifespan

2.) Female mate shortly after becoming adults

3.) Females grouped closely together

What mating system is usually associated with lekking?

Polygyny

What are the possible female benefits of lekking?

- Choose healthiest male (good genes model)

- Choose mate that have most attractive offspring to future females (sexy-son hypothesis)

How is the Sexy-Son Hypothesis supported by the sandfly experiment?

- Offspring from preferred males are more attractive than rejected males;

- Offspring from preferred and rejected males survive equally though;

- Females choose males based on attractiveness but not genes;

What are the possible male benefits of lekking?

- Chosen by multiple females

- May benefit from proximity to relatives

- Peacocks in the same lek are half as related as siblings (closely related)

How does polyandry work in social insects like the honeybee?

In honey bees the queen bee mates with the worker male bees (polyandry)

What are 4 material benefits of polyandry for females?

1.) Nutrients to maintain sperm

2.) Nuptial gifts from males

3.) Better feeding and nesting sites

4.) Male parental care ( males take care of the young instead of the female)

How is disease susceptibility of insect colonies influenced by the polyandry mating system?

Since there are more males to mate with, it increases the genetic diversity, which helps survive infection of diseases

What is promiscuity? What are the 2 types?

When males and females in a population mate randomly and with multiple partners (polyandry and polygyny at the same time);

1.) No pair bonds, multiple partners;

2.) Polygynandry: multiple pair bonds formed between individuals simultaneously;

Know the case study of dunnocks (What are the main forms of mating system observed? In what ways do male & female territories overlap? How does parental care work and how does impact the offspring?).

- All main forms observed (monogamy, polyandry, polygyny, and polgynandry)

- Multiple males observed in a female's territory

- Varying levels of parental help from males (one, both, none) -> more help= bigger offspring, better survival

What are 4 types of anthropogenic effects on mating systems?

1.) Habitat fragmentation

2.) Climate change

3.) Pollution

4.) Sport hunting

What is habitat fragmentation? Know the brushtail possum example.

Habitat Fragmentation: the breaking up of an animal's habitat due to human interference;

- Brushtail Possum ex: unfragmented - (monogamous)females had territory,

fragmented - (caused polygyny)females had less territory and were clustered closere together

How can climate change affect parental care?

Change in climate affects migratory distance and therefore, parental care (ex: shore birds)

+ Increased distance reduces paternal care

- Decreased distances increase care

What is the polygyny threshold model? What is its purpose? What are the variables A and B (e.g. how do they relate to habitat quality? Female fitness?) Under what circumstances is polygyny preferred over monogamy?

- Designed to predict female behavior when choosing between different male territories

- B (polygyny threshold): minimum difference in habitat quality of male territories in a given area that is sufficient to favor females choosing polygyny

- A: difference in fitness for monogamy vs. polygyny in best territory (Male A)

How does the polygyny threshold model apply to territory choice in lark buntings?

Females prefer more shaded area even if there is a female present there = polygyny over the less shaded monogamous area since newborn offsprings are more likely to survive in shade

What is extrapair copulation?

Extrapair Copulation is observed in species that appeared monogamous. This means that birds remain in pair bonds but WILL Mate with individuals in neighbouring territories.

-Birds show Social Monogamy but NOT Genetic Monogamy.

Example:

Clair and Frank - House of Cards.

What are possible benefits of EPC to males and females?

Males:

- Fertilize more females!

Females:

1) Increase chances that all eggs are fertilized (fertility insurance hypothesis)

2) Maximize genetic diversity of offspring (better survival rate)

3) Take advantage of males with good genes that won't pair bond

4) Increase amount of direct benefits received (food, protection)

For indigo buntings, what did genetic analysis show in terms of % matings involving EPC? How does the incidence of EPC compare between indigo buntings and fairy wrens?

- Behavior only studies suggest that 13% of mating involves EPC

- Combination of behavior and genetics showed that 27% of matings result in fertilization

- EPC can vary across species

- In fairy wrens, accounts for 80% of the young

What is sperm competition? How is it facilitated in chickens?

- Direct competition of sperm from males, after female has mated

- Determining which sperm will fertilize the egg

- Last male is probably the one that will fertilize the egg, and how fast sperm can swim

Know the case study of dungfly mating as it relates to sperm competition. What were the key findings of the experiment that included radiation of some males to look for evidence of sperm competition? How does copulation duration affect the number of eggs fertilized? What is meant by 'last male precedence'?

Experiment: Allow 2 males to mate with 1 female, 1 male pretreated with radiation to kill the sperm;

Count the number of unhatched eggs

Results: The longer copulation the more eggs fertilized

- Last Male Precedence means that more eggs are fertilized by the last male who copulates with the female

Know the case study of sea urchin 'mating' as it relates to sperm competition. How does swim speed of sperm affect the amount of sperm required to fertilize 50% of a batch of eggs? How does sperm age affect swim speed and fertilization rate?

- Since fertilization is external, slower swim velocity leads to less of the eggs being fertilized

- The older the sperm the slower their swim speed

Varying shapes of sperm in the animal kingdom may arise from sperm competition. For the Dunnock, how does added food influence female and male territory size?

Is the optimal mating system the same for male and female dunnocks?

What are the preferred mating systems for each of the sexes in decreasing order of reproductive success? (Remember that the mating systems used by Dunnocks can vary within a

single population and is highly dependent on resources.)

- With lots of food provided the female Dunnock will defend a much smaller territory size

- Food does not affect the territory size of the male Dunnock

Preferred mating system of:

- Males: reproductive success increases with mate # and sole access

- Polygyny, polygynandry, monogamy, polyandry

- Females: reproductive success increases with mate #

- Polyandry, polygynandry, monogamy, polygyny

What is NOT an example of male - male competition?

Sexual Imprinting

What is the Hamilton-Zuk hypothesis?

Ornamental traits are predictive of parasite resistance (and "good genes")

What is an example of sensory bias in a species?

chuck sounds in Tungara frog calls

Cultural Transmission does not apply to:

social facilitation

According to Reading #4, all of the following are examples of tool use in chimpanzees across Africa:

1.) Gathering rainwater with sponges made from folded leaves or moss

2.) Hunting bush babies with sharpened sticks

3.) Cracking nuts with sticks and stones

According to Reading #4, all of the following are possible reasons tool usage is so rare in the animal kingdom:

1.) It requires physical skills including delicate motor abilities

2.) It requires cognitive ability including working memory capacity and self-restraint.

3.) It is a necessity as it relates to habitat or diet

According to Reading #4, which of the following illustrates tool use in an animal?

A chimpanzee putting a blade of grass into a termite nest to catch them

According to Reading #4, which of the following is the Egyptian Vulture's version of the chimpanzee's "cracking using a stone" method?

Lifting stones with its beak to throw at ostrich eggs until they break and can be eaten

According to Reading #5a, what is the purpose of drumming in male palm cockatoos?

To impress females during courtship

According to Reading #5b, all of the following are benefits associated with the pufferfish's intricate sand wheel EXCEPT?

Distracts predators away from fertilized eggs with its mesmerizing design

According to Reading #5b, all of the following are ways in which the male pufferfish builds his underwater sand sculpture EXCEPT?

Puffing sand away by squirting water out of his mouth

According to Reading #5a, drumming behavior in male palm cockatoos shares all of the following components of human instrumental music EXCEPT?

Dancing to the drumbeats

According to Reading #6b, all of the following are associated with polygyny among Brazilian Thoropa taophora frogs:

1.) Creates genetic diversity

2.) Provides females with more access to a good quality male and breeding site

3.) Elicits female-female competition