Fundamental Bio 2X

Biology 2A

Mutations

changes in the genetic material of a cell (or virus)

Gene

a genomic sequence (DNA or RNA) directly encoding functional product molecules, either RNA or protein

Spontaneous Mutations

mutations occurring in the absence of mutagens, usually due to errors in the normal functioning of cellular enzymes

net mutations

DNA damage - repair

Germ line

Sex cells

somatic cells

non-sex cells

Most mutations have no effect where they land

most random mutations affect unimportant regions

silent mutations

mutations that arise when a single DNA nucleotides alteration inside a protein-coding region of a gene does not affect the amino acid sequence that makes up the gene's protein

nonsense mutations

a change in DNA that causes a protein to terminate or end its translation

missense mutation

a point mutation where a single nucleotide change results in a codon that codes for a different amino acid

most mutations have no effect- mendel

most mutations even if the fall in important places are recessive and hence can only affect phenotype when homozygous

albinism

inherited condition that affects production of melanin, the pigment that colours the skin, hair and eyes

alkaptonuria

inherited disorder that causes the body to not produce enough of the homogentisic dioxygenase (HGD)

cretinism

a condition of severely stunted physical and mental growth due to untreated congenital deficiency of thyroid hormones

phenylketonuria

rare inherited disorder that causes an amino acid called phenylalanine to build up in the body

ecological succession

the process by which the mix of species and habitat in an area changes over time

How many species are there on Earth?

many different estimates but generally the most accepted answer is 8.7 million give or take 1-3 million

Biodiversity bias

animals are reported more often than is proportional to numbers

Species Scape

the size of each organism pictured on the landscape indicates the known number of species in that group compared to the known numbers in other groups

Whittaker’s five kingdom classification (1969)

living things are divided into 5 groups: animal, plant, fungi, protists and Monera

Population

organisms at specific time & place

Species

a group of organisms that can reproduce with one another in nature and produce fertile offspring

Primary Succession

an ecological succession where a newly formed area is inhabited for the first time by a group of species or a community

Secondary Succession

a previously occupied area is re-colonized following a distance that kills much or all of its community

Initiation stage Succession

-bare ground no vegetation
-formation of a new, unoccupied habitat, such as from a lava flow

Colonisation stage Succession

-low nutrient, low-water unstable soil
- Vegetation: Bryophytes
-stress-tolerant, small, rapidly growing & reproducing

Development stage Succession

-stable soil
-vegetation: grasses, weeds
-competitive, disturbance-tolerant

Mature stage Succession

-stable, nutrient and water-rich soil
-competitive grasses, bushes, small trees
-Competitive, less disturbance-tolerant

Climax stage Succession

-stable, nutrient and water-rich soil
-large trees
-long-lived, disturbance intolerant

Density-independent population processes

any force that affects the size of a population of living things regardless of the population

Density-dependent population processes

change in the birth and death rate of a population as a result of changes in population density

Population Processes

stressors affect all individuals regardless how large the population is

Dispersal

the movement of individuals to other locations for breeding

Migration

Regular and directional movement of individuals between two locations

Carrying capacity

determines the size of the population that can exist or will be tolerated there

Competition

negative effects by one organism consuming or controlling access to a limited resource

Assemblage

collection of interacting populations in the same geographic area

Fundamental Niche

set of resources under which organisms could survive

Realized Niche

set of conditions under which organisms could survive

Functional niche

Combination of conditions and resources where a species should be able to survive based on their combination of adaptations

Invasive Species

a species that causes ecological or economic harm in a new environment where it is not native

Spatial Variation

occurs when a quantity that is measured at different spatial locations exhibits values that differ across the location

Mutualism

a type of symbiotic relationship where all species involved benefit from their interaction

Symbiosis

any type of a close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms, be it a mutualitic, commensalistic or parasites

Temporal Variation

frequency and magnitude of fluctuations in ecosystem structure or ecosystem function

Biomechanics

the study of the mechanical laws relating to the movement or structure of living organisms

Elliptical Wings

designed for low-speed flight, maneuverability and generally short with low aspect ratio

High Wing Speed

relatively high-aspect ratio
and are only slightly cambered, having an almost flat profile and are often swept back

High aspect wings

provide plenty of lift in the windswept environment they live in

Slotted high-lift wings

not only allows them to carry heavy loads but also enables them to maximise energy expenditure whilst foraging for food

Migration Physiology

part of the life cycle and depends on a complex internal rhythm that affects the whole organism

Energetic Adaptations

the energy a person expends when subjected to a severe emotional or physical trauma

Phenology

the study of seasonal changes in plants and animals related to climate

Protected Species

a species of animal or plant which is forbidden by law to harm or destroy

Marine Protected Areas

places at sea where environmentally damaging activities, like certain types of fishing are restricted

conservation

the care and protection of resources so they can persist for future

species-based management of conservation

focuses on specific species and not on the environment as a whole

community-based management of conservation

communities managing own environment

statutory consultees

organisations paid by the government to provide neutral advice on environmental issues

Designing a MPA

1.Identification based on the presence of key features
2.Prioritisation based on the qualities of features 3.Assessment of the scale needed to maintain integrity 4.Assessment of the ability to effectively manage features 5.Prioritisation according to their contribution to the MPA network

MPA only work if

1.big enough
2.close enough
3.representative
4.numerous enough
5.actively protected

Macroplastics

relatively large particles of plastic especially in the marine environment (anything ≥ 5 mm)

Microplastics

extremely small pieces of plastic debris in the environment resulting from the disposal and breakdown of consumer products and industrial waste (anything < 5 mm)

When plastic enters the ocean

i) burial in sediment
ii) photodegradation: UV exposure
iii) just keep floating

what can happen when plastic enters the ocean

1. ingestion
2. entanglement
3. invasive species

effects of ingesting microplastics

1. false satiation, suffocation
2. physical blockages
3. weakened condition/ hormonal disruption

solutions to plastic problems

-plant-based plastics
-better washing machines
-high efficiency waste-water filtration

ways to reduce amounts of plastic

education: beach cleans, recycling
legislation: microbead ban, 5p carrier bags

Ecosystem

an entity that contains all the abiotic components of the environment an all the environment

Ecosystem Functioning

the capacity of ecosystems to carry out the primary ecosystem processes of capturing, storing and transferring energy, CO2, nutrients and water

Supporting Services

services that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services

Regulating Services

the benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

assesses the consequences of ecosystem change for human well-being

abiotic- ecosystem

non-living part of an ecosystem

biotic- ecosystem

living part of an ecosystem

Ecosystem Goods and Services

the environmental benefits from physical, chemical and biological functions of healthy ecosystems

Physiological Homeostasis

the tendency of the body to maintain critical physiological parameters

First Law of Thermodynamics

energy can be transformed from one form to another but cannot be created or destroyed

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

the source of energy for use and storage at the cellular level

Gamma Phosphate

the primary phosphate group on the ATP molecules that is hydrolysed when the energy is needed to drive anabolic reactions

Hydrolysis

a chemical reaction of the interaction of chemicals with water, leading to the substance and water

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

a nucleotide derived from ATP with the liberation of energy that is then used in the performance of muscular work

Oxidative Phosphorylation

the process by which ATP synthesis is coupled to the movement of electrons through the mitochondrial electron transport chain and the associated consumption of oxygen

Glycolysis Process

Glucose + 2ATP + 2NAD+ -> Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH

Krebs Cycle

the sequence of reactions by which most living cells generate energy during the process of aerobic respiration. It takes place in the mitochondria using up oxygen and producing carbon dioxide and water as waste products and ADP is converted to energy rich ATP

Krebs Cycle Process

Acetyl CoA + NAD+ + H2O + FAD + ADP + 2NAD+ -> 6NADH + 2FADH2 + 2ATP

Glucose Homeostasis

the balance of insulin and glucagon to maintain blood glucose

Glucose Metabolism

the process that involves various enzymes that encourage glucose catabolism in cells

Hyperglycemia

high blood glucose

Hypoglycemia

low blood glucose

Insulin

released from pancreatic beta-cells when blood glucose increases

Glucagon

released from pancreatic alpha-cells when blood glucose levels fall

Insulin and Glucose cause......

opposing actions

Gluconeogenesis

a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as lactate or amino acids

Homeostasis of Blood Glucose

maintained by the pancreas and accomplished by the opposing and balanced actions of glucagon and insulin

Phosphorylation

the transfer of phosphate molecules to a protein

Kinase/ Phosphatase System

rapidly reverses changes to the enzyme induced by phosphorylation

Glycogen Synthase

the regulatory enzyme in the pathway of glycogen synthesis

Glycogen Phosphorylase

catalyses the rate-limiting step in glycogenolysis

Rate Determining Step

the slowest step of the chemical reaction that determines the speed (rate)