Biology Final Exam

Evolution

the gradual change in which new species arise from older species

The mechanism for evolution was simultaneously and independently discovered by two scientists

Charles Darwin and Alred Wallace

Natural Selection

survival of the fittest, where individuals with favorable traits survive and reproduce. Can only take place if there is variation in the population

Divergent evolution

organisms share a common ancestor and involve in diverse directions

convergent evolution

organisms develop similar traits and do not share common ancestry

homologous structures

structures that have similar forms but have different functions

vestigial structures

residual structures that no longer have a function, such as wings on flightless birds

Biogeography

the study of the geographic distribution of organisms on the planet and how they adapted due to this distribution

species

a group of individuals that can interbreed and produce viable offspring

speciation

the formation of two species from one original species

allopatric speciation

involves geographic separation of species

sympatric speciation

occurs in the same location, when there are chromosomal changes during cell development

temporal isolation

reproduce at different time periods

habitat isolation

move to a new habitat

behavioral isolation

use different mating behaviors

gametic barrier

different reproductive structures

hybrid inviability

the hybrids are not able to fully develop

hybrid sterility

the hybrids are infertile

gradual speciation

species diverge gradually over time

punctuated equilibrium

a new species is formed quickly and then remains unchanged for long periods of time

modern synthesis

describes how natural selection affects genetics of populations

microevolution

small scale changes in population over time

macroevolution

broad changes that give rise to new species with widely divergent characteristics

allele frequency

the rate at which a specific allele appears within a population

gene pool

all of the alleles in a population

genetic drift

random changes in allele frequency that have no evolutionary advantage over other alleles

founder effect

causes allele frequency changes in a small part of a large population that has become less isolated

Hardy-Weinberg Equation

p2+2pq+q2=1

p2

homozygous dominant individuals

2pq

heterozygous individuals

q2

homozygous recessive individuals

bottle neck effect

a chance event or catastrophe can drastically rescue the genetic variability within a population

stabilizing selection

an average phenotype is favored

directional selection

a change in the environment shifts the spectrum of phenotypes is observed

diversifying or disruptive selection

two or more extreme phenotypes are selected for, while the average phenotype is selected against

sexual selection

males and females are quite different due to reproductive success of larger males

phylogeny

describes the relationships of an organism or group of organisms

phylogenetic tree

a diagram that represents evolutionary relationships

taxonomy

the science of classifying organisms using an international system

levels of taxonomy (increasingly specific)

kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

homologous traits

similar structures but different function, indicate common ancestor (divergent evolution)

analogous traits

similar function but different structure, do not indicate common ancestor

ecosystem

a community of organisms and their interactions with the abiotic environment

primary producers

photosynthetic plants and phytoplankton

primary consumers

herbivores, consume primary producers

secondary consumers

carnivores, consume primary consumers

tertiary consumers

eats other carnivores

Decomposers

bacteria, fungi, certain insects, and snails

biogeochemical cycles

hydrologic, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfer cycle

ecology

study of interaction of living organisms and their environment

population ecology

a group of interbreeding organisms that are of the same species living in the same area

community ecology

consists of different species that interact within the same area

ecosystem ecology

composed of all biotic and abiotic components of an area

population density

the average number of individuals with a specific area

quadrat

measures population size and density of immobile species such as plants

survivorship curve

shows the distribution of individuals in a population according to age

humans and most mammals have what kind of survivorship curve

Type I

birds have what kind of survivorship curve

Type II

trees have what kind of survivorship curve

Type III

J-shaped curve

when resources are unlimited

K-selected species

few, large offspring with long gestation

r-selected species

many, small offspring with short gestation

dorsal activity

contains cranial and spinal activity

ventral cavity

contains the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity

Epithelia tissues

covers the outside of organs as well line the inside

simple epithelia

single layered

stratified epithelia

forms multiple layers

squamous cell shape

flat, irregular round shape, simple: lung alveoli, stratified: skin, mouth, vagina

cuboidal cell shape

cube shaped, central nucleus, located in glands, renal tubules

columnar cell shape

tall, narrow, nucleus toward base tail, nucleus along cell. simple: digestive tract

transitional cell shape

round, simple but appear stratified, located in urinary bladder

connective tissue

made of a metrix of living cells and a non-living ground substance composed of protein fibers

Protein fiber- Collagen

provides strength for tissues and organs

Protein fiber- Elastic

provide flexibility for tissues and organs

Protein fiber- Reticular

provides support for tissues and organs

loose connective tissue

composed of loosely woven collagen and elastic fibers

dense connective tissue

fibrous dense connective tissue from the tendon has trans of collagen fibers lined up in parallel

Cartilage

hyaline cartilage consists of a matrix with cells called chondrocytes embedded in it

compact bone

dense matrix on the outer surface of the bone, organized into rings called osteons

osteoblasts

surround the exterior of the bone

adipose tissue

connective tissue that stores fat and helps protect organs, along with providing energy and insulation for the body

Blood

a connective tissue that has a fluid matrix, plasma, and no fibers

Smooth muscle tissue

no striations, single nucleus, controls involuntary movements, located in visceral organs

skeletal muscle tissue

has striations, many nuclei, controls voluntary movements, located around the bones and appendages

cardiac muscle tissue

has striations, single nucleus, controls involuntary movements, located in the heart

Neuron

main cell of the nervous tissue, has projections called dendrites that receive signals and axons that send signals

Hydrostatic Skeletal System

fluid-filled compartments, found in soft bodied invertebrates like anemones and earthworms

Exoskeleton Skeletal System

external hard encasement, found in the shells of crabs and insects

Endoskeleton Skeletal System

internal hard mineralized structures, skeletons of humans and horses

Axial skeleton

consists of the bones of the skull, ossicles of the middle ear, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and rib cage

thoracic cage

protects the heart and the lungs

Appendicular skeleton

composed of the bones of pectoral limbs, the pelvic leg, the pectoral girdle, and the pelvic girdle

pectoral girdle

clavicles and scapulae

pelvic girdle

attaches to the lower limbs of the axial skeleton by strong ligaments and bears the weight of the upper body, consists of ischium, allium and pubis bones

bone marrow tissue

responsible for the formation of red blood cells

compact bone

a tissue that has a very hard external layer that consists of osteons and the Haversian canal

Bone formation

occurs through the process of ossification

bony joint

connected by bone tissue

fibrous joint

held by fibrous connective tissue