PSYC 1000 Midterm

Midterm Prep

Scientific Method

A way of learning about the world via observations, developing theories to explain them and using these theories to make predictions

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

falsifiable

able to be disproven by experimental results

Pseudoscience

a collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method.

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviours or events

Misperceptions of Theories

1) Theories are NOT opinions/beliefs, 2) All theories are NOT equally plausible, 3) Quality is not related to the number of people who believe it to be true

biophysical model

a means of explaining behaviour as a product of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors

Scientific Literacy

The ability to understand, analyze, and apply scientific information

Critical Thinking

involves exercising curiosity and skepticism when evaluating the claims of others and with our own assumptions and beliefs

Empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

What are Galen's Four Temperaments

Sanguine: (blood) - impulsivity, pleasure-seeking, charisma, Choleric: (yellow bile) - ambition, energetic, aggressive, Melancholic: (black bile) - independent, perfectionist, introvert, Phlegmatic: (phlegm) - quiet, relaxed, content

Zeitgeist

a general set of beliefs of a particular culture at a specific time in history

Materialism

the belief that humans are composed exclusively of physical matter

Dualism

the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact

Psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical world and the mental representation of the world

clinical psychology

The branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders.

Phrenology

27 regions of the brain corresponding to traits detected by skull shape exams

Nature & Nurture

the debate of whether you are shaped by your environment or genes

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

Functionalism

the study of the purpose and function of behaviour and conscious experience

Behaviourism

an approach that dominated the first half of the 20th century of North American psychology and had a singular focus on studying only observable behaviour, with little to no reference to mental events or instincts as possible influences on behaviour

Radical Behaviorism

How an organism responds to rewards & punishments

humanistic psychology

focuses on the unique aspects of each individual human, each person's freedom to act, his or her rational thought, and the belief that humans are fundamentally different from other animals

Gestalt Psychology

approach to psychology emphasizing that our perception of a whole is different from our perception of the individual stimuli

Cognitive Psychology

a modern psychological perspective that focuses on processes such as memory, thinking, and language

social psychology

study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Personality Psychology

the study of how different personality characteristics can influence how we think and act

Features of Quality Scientific Research (5)

1) based on objective, reliable & valid measurements

2) can be generalized

3) uses techniques that reduce bias

4) made public

5) can be replicated

objective measurements

the measure of an entity or behaviour that, within an allowed margin of error, is consistent across instruments and observers

Variable

an object, concept or event being measured

Operational Definition

statement that describes the procedure and specific measures that are used to record observations

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Reliability

consistency of measurement

Generalizability

the degree to which one set of results can be applied to other situations, individuals, or events

Population

the group that researches want to generalize about

Sample

a select group of population members

Random Sample

A sampling method that gives every person in the population an equal chance of being selected.

Convenience Samples

samples of individuals who are the most readily available

Ecological Validity

the study represents what happens in real life

Hawthorne effect

a behaviour change that occurs as a result of being observed

Social Desirability

Participants may answer a question in a certain way to show themselves in a better light, and be more socially acceptable.

demand characteristics

Any aspects of a study that communicate to the participants how the experimenter wants them to behave.

Placebo effect

improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement

Single Blind Study

the participants do not know the true purpose of the study, or else do not know which type of treatment they are receiving

Double blind study

neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment

peer review

process by which papers submitted for publication are read/critiqued by experts in the field

Replication

the process of repeating a study and finding a similar outcome each time

anecdotal evidence

an individual's story or testimony about an observation or event that is used to make a claim as evidence

Appeal to Authority

the belief in an "expert's" claim even when no supporting data or scientific evidence is present

Research Design

a set of methods that allows a hypothesis to be tested

Qualitative Research

examining an issue without performing numerical measurements of variables

Quantitative research

research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form

Case Study

in-depth report about details of a case

naturalistic observation

Unobtrusive observations and behaviour recordings as they occur in subject's natural environments

Self-reporting

a method in which responses are provided directly by participants, typically through face-to-face interviews, phone surveys, paper and pencil tests, and web-based questionnaires

Correlation research

A measure of the relationship between two or more variables

Illusory correlations

the perception of a relationship where none exists

Third variable problem

the possibility that a third, unmeasured variable is actually responsible for a well-established correlation between two variables

random assignment

division of the sample into groups so that every individual has an equal chance of being put in any group or condition

Confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

independent variable

variable that is manipulated

Dependent variable

The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested.

between-subjects design

comparisons are made between different groups of participants

experimental group

the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested

Control group

the baseline result

Quasi-experimental research

2 or more groups are selected based on predetermined characteristics, not random assignment

Normal distribution

A function that represents the distribution of variables as a symmetrical bell-shaped graph.

skewed distribution

an asymmetrical but generally bell-shaped distribution (of opinions); its mode, or most frequent response, lies off to one side

Genes

the basic building blocks of heredity

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid

Genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

Phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.

Chromosomes

Structures in a cell that contain genetic information.

Behavioural genomics

study of how genes and the environment influence behaviour

monozygotic twins

come from a single ovum (egg), which makes them genetically identical

Dizygotic twins

come from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm cells that share the same womb

Longitudinal study

a study that observes the same participants on many occasions over a long period of time

Heritability

a statistic between 0 and 1 that represents the degree to which genetic differences between individuals contribute to individual differences in behaviour

Epigenetics

the study of changes in gene expression as a result of experience and that do NOT alter the genetic code

Natural Selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

Evolution

a change in frequency of genes occurring in an interbreeding population over generations

evolutionary psychology

the attempt to explain social behaviour in terms of genetic factors that have evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection

Hunter Gatherer Theory

explicitly links performance on specific tasks to the different roles performed by males and females over the course of our evolutionary history

intrasexual selection

selection within the same sex, individuals of one sex compete directly for mates of the opposite sex

Intersexual selection

members of one sex choose mates on the basis of certain traits

Function of neurons

responsible for sending and receiving messages throughout the body

Cell Body (Soma)

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus that houses the cell's genetic material

Dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Neurotransmitters

the chemicals that function as messengers allowing neurons to communicate with each other

Glial Cells

specialized cells in the brain and spinal cord that support neurons, remove waste products such as dead neurons, and perform other manufacturing, nourishing, and cleanup tasks

Myelin

a fatty sheath that insulates axons from one another, resulting in increased speed and efficiency of neural communication

Resting Potential

the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse

action potential

a wave of electrical activity that originates at the base of the axon and rapidly travels down its length

Synapse

area composed of the axon terminal of one neuron, the synaptic space, and the dendrite or cell body of the next neuron

all-or-none principle

individual nerve cells fire at the same strength every time an action potential occurs

refractory period

a brief period in which a neuron cannot fire

Synaptic Cleft

The narrow gap that separates the presynaptic neuron from the postsynaptic cell.

Reuptake

the reabsorption of neurotransmitters

glutamate

most common excitatory neurotransmitter

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter of the nervous system, preventing neurons from generating action potentials