https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mJCb7T54nsI

Contemporary Multilevel Machines

Machines that do not rely on vacuum tubes.

Servers

Computers designed to provide network services and resources to clients.

Mainframes

Computers known for their usage in large-scale data processing and critical business applications.

x86 architecture

The instruction set architecture that is based on Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC).

AVR architecture

An architecture commonly used in the development of embedded systems and microcontrollers.

Mechanical computers

Computers belonging to the zeroth generation of computer architecture.

Virtual machine

A software emulation of a specific computer system's hardware.

Transistors

The technology that marked the beginning of the second generation of computer architecture.

Personal computers

Computers typically used for personal productivity and general-purpose tasks.

Evolution of Multilevel Machines

The progression of machines with progressively higher levels of integration.

Disposable computers

Computers developed with low cost as a primary factor.

Microcontrollers

Are commonly used in Embedded Systems

Vacuum tubes

Key technology during the first generation of computer architecture.

ARM architecture

An architecture known for its energy efficiency and prevalence in mobile devices.

Random Access Memory

A type of memory that is considered volatile and loses its data when the power is interrupted.

Complex Instruction Set Computer

A design principle for modern computers that emphasizes the use of a large and diverse instruction set.

Instruction-Level Parallelism

Parallelism is exploited within individual instructions to get more instructions/sec out of the machine.

Bits

the basic unit of storage that can have a value of either 1 or 0 in computer memory

Fetch phase

The phase of instruction processing where the CPU retrieves instructions from memory.

Processor-Level Parallelism

The execution of multiple instructions in parallel within a single program.

Megabyte

A megabyte (MB) is larger in terms of storage capacity than a kilobyte (KB).

Universal Serial Bus

The most common protocol for device communication.

Serial transfer

An I/O transfer that involves the CPU moving data one word or byte at a time.

Device driver

Software that facilitates communication between the CPU and specific devices.

Programmed I/O

An I/O method that requires a high level of CPU involvement.

Keyboard

An input device that have numerous keys

Direct Memory Access

A method for I/O transfers that speeds up data transfer without involving the CPU.

Input/Output devices

Devices that communicate with the CPU and memory in a computer system.

Input/Output controller

A component that handles the details of I/O operations on behalf of the CPU.

Memory-mapped Input/Output

An I/O method that involves using memory addresses for device communication.

Input/Output devices

Devices that provide a way for the user to interact with the computer in the overall system architecture.

Direct Random Access memory

A type of RAM that requires regular refreshing to hold memory and loses its data when power is cut off.

Parity Bit

A technique used to detect and correct errors in data stored in memory.

Hamming Code

A method used to detect and correct errors in memory storage.

hard disk drive

A type of secondary memory

Bit

The smallest unit of data storage in a computer's primary memory.

Cache Memory

A small, high-speed storage area that stores frequently used data for quick access by the CPU.

Big Endian

The endian mode where the most significant byte is stored at the lowest memory address.

Byte Ordering

The arrangement of bytes within a multi-byte data item in memory.

Memory Address

The unique identifier for a location in primary memory.

Little Endian

The byte ordering where the least significant byte is stored first.

7

The highest number of data bits that can be handled by 3 parity bits.

Read only memory

a memory technology that provides non-volatile storage for firmware and software instructions.

Cache Memory

A type of memory designed to store frequently accessed data for faster retrieval.

Memory controller

The primary function of a memory controller in a computer system is to manage access to primary memory.

Gates

The fundamental building blocks of digital circuits.

Truth table

A table that displays the input and output of a Boolean function.

OR operation

Outputs 1(true) if at least one of the input is 1(true)

NAND gate

A gate that has an output that is the inverse of the AND operation.

Boolean Algebra

A type of Algebra where its variables and functions can only take the values 1 and 0

XOR gate

A gate that is represented by the symbol "⊕" and performs exclusive OR operation.

Composite gates

Gates that are built using other gates.

4

the minimum number of parity bits needed for a 15-bit data to produce its Hamming code

Input and Output

A truth table displays the ___________ of a Boolean function

1(true)

the result of the AND operation when both inputs are 1 (true)

OR

Boolean operation that represents logical addition

George Boole

Invented Boolean Algebra

AND

Boolean operation that represents logical multiplication

Boolean operator

A simple boolean function that operates on a few boolean variables

Boolean function

A function that operates on boolean variables, and returns a boolean value

Commutative

xAnd y = yAnd x
x Or y = y Or x

Associative

x And (y And z) = (x And y) And z
x Or (y Or z) = (x Or y) Or z

Distributive

x And (y Or z) = (x And y) Or (x And z)
x Or (y And z)) = (x Or y) And (x Or z)

De Morgan

Not(x And y) = Not(x) Or Not(y)
Not(x Or y) = Not(x) And Not(y)

Idempotent

x And x = x
x Or x = x

Double Negation

Not(Not(x)) = x

Program

A sequence of instructions describing how to perform a certain task

Machine language

a computer’s primitive instructions form a language in which people can communicate with the computer

structured computer organization

a way of structuring computers as a sequence of abstractions, each abstraction building on the one below it. In this way, the complexity can be mastered and computer systems can be designed in a systematic, organized way

Translation

Replacing each instruction in a language with an equivalent sequence of instructions in machine language entirely

Interpretation

Converts language into machine language in real-time. This technique does not require generating a new program in machine language entirely

Interpreter

Program that carries out the interpretation

Register

Can hold a single binary number up to a maximum

Arithmetic Logic Unit

capable of performing simple arithmetic operations

data path

The registers are connected to the ALU to form a _______, over which the data flows.

systems programmers

These interpreters and translators are written by people called _______ who specialize in designing and implementing new vir tual machines

Architecture

The set of data types, operations, and features of each level is called its

computer architecture

The study of how to design parts of a computer system that are visible to the programmers is called

Hardware

Consists of tangible objects like integrated circuits, printed circuit boards, cables, power supplies, memories, and printers

Software

Consists of algorithms (detailed instructions telling how to do something) and their computer representations—namely, programs

Blaise Pascal

The first person to build a working calculating machine

Difference Engine

This mechanical device, was designed to compute tables of numbers useful for naval navigation. The entire construction of the machine was designed to run a single algorithm.

Analytical Engine

The successor of the Difference Engine

Ada Lovelace

the world’s first computer programmer

Howard Aiken

The person that built the general-purpose computer that Babbage had failed to build

Enigma Machine

The device that encoded German messages back in WWII

COLOSSUS

machine that decoded the Enigma

John Atanasoff

credited with the invention of the digital computer

von Neumann machine

Is the basis for nearly all digital computers

Bus

is a collection of parallel wires used to connect the components of a computer

Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce

Inventor of Integrated Circuits

Moore’s law

often expressed as the doubling of the number of transistors every 18 months

Nathan’s first law of software

“Software is a gas”

Radio Frequency Identification

the most important development in the area of throwaway computers

Arduino

a complete embedded computing platform that is also cheap making it easily accessible to students and hobbyists

Clusters

Large amount of connected servers

Data center

Large clusters are typically housed in special-purpose rooms or buildings called

Cloud Computing

In this model, the data are accessible from different devices anywhere and at any time without the user having to track where they are.

Supercomputers

They had enormously fast CPUs, many giga bytes of main memory, and very fast disks and networks. They were used for massive scientific and engineering calculations such as simulating colliding galaxies, synthesizing new medicines, or modeling the flow of air around an airplane wing.

Multimedia extension

These instructions were intended to speed up computations required to process audio and video, making the addition of special multimedia coprocessors unnecessary.