PSYC 3150 - Final Exam Questions

Behaviour Modification Applications

If a behavior modification program consists of just a baseline phase and a treatment phase, explain, in two or three sentences, why we cannot necessarily claim that a change in behavior was due to the treatment

We cannot claim that a change in behavior was due to the treatment because the improvement in behavior could be the result of other factors (patient was sick or depressed, etc.)

Briefly, distinguish between a behavior modification program, consisting of just a baseline phase and a treatment phase, and behavior modification research

Behavior modification research goes beyond a baseline phase and a treatment phase in order to demonstrate convincingly that it was the treatment, and not some uncontrolled variable, that was responsible for any change in the target behavior.

Define dependent variable. Give an example

the measure of behavior is referred to as the dependent variable. This variable is called dependent because it depends on the treatment. Ex” correctly completing math problems was the dependent variable.

Define independent variable. Give an example

The treatment or the intervention is referred to as the independent variable. Ex: the teacher’s treatment for Kelly was the independent variable. This variable is called independent because it depends only on the behavior modifier's decision to implement it.

Define internal validity

A study or experiment is said to have internal validity if it convincingly demonstrated that the independent variable caused the observed change in the dependent variable

Define external validity

A study or experiment is said to have external validity to the extent that the finding can be generalized to other behaviors, individuals, settings, or treatments.

With reference to an example, briefly describe the four components of the reversal-replication design. What is another name for this design?

The type of research strategy that Kelly’s teacher employed is called a reversal-replication, which is an experimental design consisting of a baseline phase followed by a treatment phase, followed by a reversal back to baseline conditions, fol- lowed by a repeat of the treatment phase. The baseline is often represented as A and the treatment as B. Hence, this research design is also called an ABAB design. (Sometimes the second baseline is omitted, in which case the design is called an ABA design—as discussed below.) It has also been called a withdrawal design because the treatment is withdrawn during the second baseline phase.

Ideally, how long should the baseline phase of the reversal-replication design continue?

Ideally, then, a baseline phase should continue until the pattern of performance is stable or until it shows a trend in the direction opposite to that predicted when the independent variable is introduced.

What scientific, practical, and ethical considerations might lead someone to lengthen or shorten a baseline?

Other considerations might lead to shortening or lengthening a baseline in an applied research project. First, scientific considerations related to the newness of the independent and dependent variables should be reviewed. We might be more comfortable conducting a shorter baseline in a new study of behavior that has already been well researched than in a study of a less explored area. Second, practical considerations might limit the length of baseline observations. The researcher’s available time, the observers’ availability, the students’ restrictions for completing projects on time, and any number of other factors might lead us to limit or extend the baseline for nonscientific reasons. Finally, ethical considerations often affect baseline length. For example, an extended baseline phase is ethically unacceptable when attempting to manage the self-abusive behavior of a child with a developmental disability.

How many reversals and replications are necessary in a reversal-replication design?

If we observe a very large effect when the independent variable is introduced and if the area is one that has been explored before, one replication might be sufficient. Other combinations of factors might lead us to conduct several replications to convincingly demonstrate a cause–effect relationship.

Identify two limitations of the reversal-replication design. Give an example of each

Although the reversal-replication design is a common behavior modification research strategy, it has limitations that make it inappropriate in certain situations. First, it might be undesirable to reverse to baseline conditions following a treatment phase. When treating a child’s self-abusive behavior, for example, reversing to baseline following a successful treatment to prove that the treatment was responsible for the change in behavior would be ethically unacceptable. Second, it might be impossible to obtain a reversal due to “behavioral trapping.” In Chapter 16, we describe how a behavior that has been improved by a deliberately managed reward might be “trapped” and maintained by a natural reward. For example, once a shy child has been taught by an adult to interact with peers, this interactive behavior might be maintained by subsequent attention from the peers. Once a golf pro has taught a novice golfer to hit a golf ball over 200 yards, it is unlikely that the novice golfer will return to a swing that produced a 150-yard drive. For these reasons, as mentioned previously above, the second B of the design is sometimes omitted and the resulting design is called an ABA design.

State an advantage of a multiple-baseline design over a reversal-replication

An advantage is that it is not necessary to reverse back to baseline conditions

With reference to an example, briefly describe a multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design

Suppose Kelly’s teacher wanted to demonstrate the effects of the treatment on the child’s academic performance but did not want to do a reversal and risk losing the improvement Kelly showed. The teacher might demonstrate the treatment’s effect by using a multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design, which involves establishing baselines for two or more of an individual’s behaviors, followed by introducing the treatment sequentially across those behaviors. The first step for Kelly’s teacher to apply this design might be to record Kelly’s performance in solving math problems during math class as well as in spelling and sentence writing during language arts. The resulting baselines might have been those shown in Figure 4.3. The treatment of an extra minute of recess per correct problem might have been introduced in math class while the other baseline conditions might have been continued during language arts. If the results were those shown in Figure 4.3, the teacher might next have introduced the treatment for the second behavior by allowing an extra minute of recess for each word Kelly spelled correctly. Finally, the teacher might have introduced the treatment for the third behavior—sentence writing. If performance was as indicated in Figure 4.3, the behavior changed only when the treatment was introduced. This example illustrates the control of a treatment over several behaviors.

What are three potential limitations of a multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design?

A potential problem with this design is that the behaviors might not be independent (e.g., Nordquist, 1971). If Kelly’s teacher had applied the treatment program to one behavior while the other two behaviors were kept at baseline conditions and if an improvement had been observed in all three behaviors concurrently, the teacher could not have confidently attributed the improvement to the treatment, because two of the three behaviors that improved did not receive the treatment. Other limitations are that it might not be possible to find two or more suitable behaviors or sufficient observers to gather the necessary data on several behaviors. In addition, if the procedure is used with only one individual, we can conclude only that the treatment was internally valid with that individual. We must be cautious in extrapolating the results to other individuals.

With reference to an example, briefly describe a multiple-baseline-across-situations design

A multiple-baseline-across-situations design involves establishing baselines for a behavior of an individual across two or more situations concurrently, followed by the introduction of the treatment to the behavior sequentially across those situations. For example, Allen (1973) was concerned with decreasing bizarre verbalizations of an 8-year-old boy with minimal brain damage, who we will refer to as Todd. While attending a sleep-away summer camp, Todd fantasized for hours about his two imaginary pet penguins that he called Tug Tug and Junior Polka Dot. These verbalizations interfered with Todd’s interactions with his peers and the camp counselors. During an initial baseline phase, data on the verbalizations were collected in four situations: during trail walks in the evening, in the dining hall, in Todd’s cabin, and during classes. It appeared that the verbalizations occurred because they brought Todd a lot of attention. The treatment, a program that ignored verbalizations, was then introduced in the first situation (trail walking) while the remaining three situations continued on baseline. Following the successful reduction of the verbalizations during trail walking, treatment was introduced to the second situation, the dining hall, and the remaining two situations continued on base- line. Eventually, the treatment was introduced sequentially across the remaining two situations. The daily number of bizarre verbalizations decreased to near zero in each situation following the introduction of treatment to that situation. For another example of the use of this design in research, see Graff and Karsten (2012).

hat are three potential limitations of a multiple-baseline-across-situations design?

Similar to the potential problem with the multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design, in a multiple-baseline- across-situations design, when the treatment is applied to the behavior in the first situation, it might cause subsequent improvement in all situations. When this happens, the researcher is not able to conclude that the improvement was necessarily the result of the treatment. Other potential limitations are that the behavior might occur in only one situation, or there might not be sufficient observers to gather the necessary data. In addition, if the procedure is used with only one individual, we can conclude only that the treatment is effective with that individual. We must be cautious in extrapolating the result to other individuals.

With reference to an example, briefly describe a multiple-baseline-across-people design

A multiple-baseline-across-people design involves establishing baselines for a specific behavior across two or more people concurrently, followed by the introduction of the treatment sequentially to each person. For example, Wanlin, Hrycaiko, Martin, and Mahon (1997) used a multiple-baseline-across-people design to demonstrate the effectiveness of a combination of procedures (called a treatment package) designed to improve the practice performance of four female speed skaters. The average number of skating laps around the rink completed per practice of the four skaters were recorded during initial practices. The first skater was then given the treatment package while the others continued on baseline. Exposure to the treatment package improved the practice performance of the first skater. Across practices, the treatment package was introduced sequentially to the second skater, then to the third skater, and then to the fourth skater, and each time it led to an improvement in the number of laps skated per practice. This demonstration of improvement in individuals who receive treatment sequentially across time is a convincing demonstration of a treatment program’s effectiveness.

What are three potential limitations of a multiple-baseline-across-people design?

A potential problem with the multiple-baseline-across-people design is that the first individual might explain the treatment or model the desirable behavior to the other individuals, causing them to improve in the absence of treatment (see, e.g., Kazdin, 1973). Also, it is not always possible to find either two or more individuals with the same problem or the additional observers necessary to gather the data. Note that successfully replicating the effect across individuals demonstrates both internal validity and a degree of external validity, in that we can extrapolate the effects with some confidence to other individuals.

With reference to an example, briefly describe the changing-criterion design

With a changing-criterion design, the control that a treatment exerts on an individual’s behavior is evaluated by introducing successive changes in the behavioral criterion for application of the treatment. If the behavior consistently changes in the same direction each time a change is made in the criterion for application of the treatment, we can conclude that the treatment was responsible for the change in behavior.

With reference to an example, briefly describe an alternating-treatments design. What is another name for this design? Explain when and why that name might be preferred

The preceding experimental designs are ideally suited for demonstrating that a particular treatment was indeed responsible for a specific behavioral change. However, what if we wanted a design that would allow us to compare the effects of different treatments for a single behavior of a single individual? Multiple-baseline designs are not well suited for this purpose. A design for such a purpose, first proposed by Barlow and Hayes (1979), is known as an alternating-treatments design, also called a multielement design. This design involves alternating two or more treatment conditions, one condition per session, with a single individual

Briefly describe a potential problem with the alternating-treatments design

A potential problem with the alternating-treatments design is that the treatments might interact; that is, one of the treatments might produce an effect because the other did or did not (i.e., a generalization or contrast effect—discussed later in this book). And in many studies using an alternating-treatments design, interactions have occurred (e.g., Hains & Baer, 1989).

In a sentence or two each, explain the scientific and practical criteria for evaluating the effects of a particular treatment. Be sure to distinguish between the two in your answer

Scientific criteria are the guidelines a researcher uses to evaluate whether there has been a convincing demonstration that the treatment was responsible for producing a reliable effect on the dependent variable. This judgment is commonly made by visually inspecting one or more graphs of the results. Judging whether an effect has been demonstrated from a scientific point of view is one thing; evaluating the prac- tical importance of behavior change to the client, other significant individuals in the client’s life, and society in general is something else. In evaluating the practical impact of the treatment, we must consider more than the scientific guidelines for judging the treatment’s effect on behavior. If Graph 2 in Figure 4.6 were a graph of self-abusive behavior, a reliable cause–effect relationship has been demonstrated but might be of little clinical significance. If the individual were still self-abusive during the treatment phases, those responsible for caring for that individual would not be satisfied. Judgments about the practical importance of behavioral change are referred to as judgments of clinical effectiveness or social importance.

Describe why it is difficult to draw conclusions about the effects of the treatments in Graphs 3, 4, and 5 in Figure 4.6:

In Graph 3 the first treatment appears to be a simple continuation of the trend observed in baseline. The effects of the reversal and the second treatment do not significantly counteract this possibility. In Graph 4 the baselines are not stable and there are many overlapping data points in the baseline and reversal phases as compared to each of the two treatment phases so that one cannot reliably conclude that treatment produced a significant change from the baselines. In Graph 5 effects of the treatment are questionable because there is only one data point shown for each of the baseline conditions and the treatment conditions.

What seven criteria would give you maximum confidence that the treatment in an ABAB design had produced an effect on the dependent variable?

Seven guidelines are commonly used for inspecting data to judge whether the treatment had an effect on the dependent variable. Confidence that an effect has been observed is greater (a) the more times that it is replicated, (b) the fewer the overlapping points between baseline and treatment phases, (c) the sooner the effect is observed following the treatment’s introduction, (d) the larger the effect is in comparison to baseline, (e) the more precisely the treatment procedures are specified, (f ) the more reliable the response measures, and (g) the more consistent the findings are with existing data and accepted behavioral theory.

What are the three levels of social validation, and why are they important?

A concept related to practical importance is that of social validity. Wolf (1978) suggested that behavior modifiers need to socially validate their work on at least three levels: (a) the extent to which the target behaviors are really the most important ones for the client and society, (b) the acceptability to the client of the particular procedures used, especially when less invasive procedures can accomplish approximately the same results, and (c) the satisfaction of the consumers (the clients and/or their caregivers) with the results. One social validation procedure involves subjective evaluation, in which clients or other significant individuals (“significant others”) are asked about their satisfaction with the goals, procedures, and results. Another social validation procedure involves preference tests to determine which of two or more alternatives clients prefer. In a third procedure, the goals as well as the results of treatment are validated socially by comparing results with clients to the average performance of some comparison group, such as normal peers. Social validation helps behavior modifiers do the best job that they can in helping individuals function fully in society.

When discussing programming of generality of behavior, what do we mean by the training situation versus the target situation?

In discussing cases like that of Carole, we are concerned with two situations: (a) the training situation—the setting in which the behavior is initially strengthened; and (b) the target situation—the setting in which we want the final behavior to occur. For Carole, the training situation was her bedroom in front of a mirror and the empty classroom. The target situation was the classroom with the audience consisting of the instructor and the other students.

When is a behavior change said to have generality?

A behavior change is said to have generality to the extent that the following three things occur:

1. Stimulus generalization: The trained behavior transfers from the training situation to the target situation, which is usually the natural environment.

2. Response generalization: Training leads to the development of new behavior that has not been specifically trained.

3. Behavior maintenance: The trained behavior persists in the target situation over time (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968).

Briefly describe how Carole’s honors presentation demonstrated behavioral generality

Because Carole’s trained behavior of presenting transfers to the target situation, it led to improvement in her confidence ( a behavior that had not been specifically trained). And, the behavior persisted in the target situation (classroom in front of her classmates) over time.

Define operant stimulus generalization. Give an example that is not in this chapter

stimulus generalization refers to the procedure of reinforcing a response in the presence of a situation and the effect of the response becoming more probable in the presence of another situation. The more similar the training and target situations are, the more stimulus generalization there will be between them.

List four tactics for programming operant stimulus generalization. Give an example of each

Train in the target situation, vary the training conditions, program common stimuli, train sufficient stimulus exemplars.

How might the teaching of a rule facilitate operant stimulus generalization? State the general factor for programming for generalization that seems to be operating. Illustrate with an example

The teaching of a rule facilitates operant stimulus generalization because it teaches the individual to program the common stimuli of the rule to different novel situations. The factor for programming that is operating is programming common stimuli.

Describe the example of a self-generated mediator of generalization involving the figure skater

As another example, Martin (2019) described how a young figure skater used a self-mediated verbal stimulus to transfer skilled skating performance from practices to competitions. The young skater was able to land her double axel consistently at practices but often missed it at competitions because the jump was rushed in the excitement of the moment. To solve the problem, she inserted into her routine the word easy—said very slowly and stretched out—just before stepping onto her take-off foot as a prompt to control the speed of the take-off. Using this keyword consistently at practices and then at competitions improved her execution during competitions.

Describe the generalization strategy referred to as general case programming. Describe an example

Horner and colleagues described a variation of training sufficient stimulus exemplars that they referred to as general case programming. With this approach, the teacher begins by identifying the range of relevant stimulus situations to which a learner will be expected to respond and the response variations that might be required. Then, during training, the learner’s behavior and acceptable variations are brought under the control of samples of the range of relevant stimuli. Sprague and Horner (1984) used this approach to teach adolescents with developmental disabilities to use vending machines by introducing them to a variety of different machines and the responses needed to use them. This approach was effective in producing generalization to enable the learners to subsequently operate any available vending machine with which they came in contact.

Define response generalization

Operant response generalization refers to the procedure of reinforcing a response in the presence of a stimulus or situation and the effect of another response becoming more probable in the presence of that or similar stimuli or situations. DeRiso and Ludwig (2012) described an example of operant response generalization in an applied setting. The employees in a restaurant were shown a poster for performing cleaning and restocking tasks in the dining and kitchen areas, and when they performed those tasks, they were reinforced by seeing check marks by their names on a performance feedback chart. This resulted in a substantial increase in the targeted behaviors. Bathroom cleaning and restocking was not targeted in this study. Nevertheless, these behaviors also increased when the targeted behaviors increased.

Describe an example of learned response generalization that occurs when different responses share a common characteristic

learned response generalization can occur if widely different responses share a common characteristic. For example, a child who has learned to add s to the ends of words pertaining to more than one object or event may show response generalization even when it is grammatically incorrect (e.g., saying “foots” instead of “feet” while looking at a picture of two feet).

Describe an example of learned response generalization due to functionally equivalent responses

an individual might show response generalization because he or she has learned functionally equivalent responses to a stimulus, i.e., responses that produce the same consequences. If you are asked to start a campfire, you might use a match or a cigarette lighter, light a stick from an existing fire, or perhaps even rub two sticks together. As another example, a child who learns to “be honest” might tell the truth, return articles left or dropped by others, and refrain from copying another student’s answers. All of these “honest” responses are functionally equivalent in the sense that they are likely to bring praise from various members of the child’s community.

List three tactics for programming operant response generalization. Describe an example of each

1. Train sufficient response exemplars: Guess, Sailor, Rutherford, and Baer (1968) taught a girl with a developmental disability to use plural nouns correctly in speech with this technique. With prompting and reinforcement, they first taught the girl to name objects correctly in the sin- gular and the plural when presented with one object (e.g., cup) and two objects (e.g., cups). They continued in this way until, after a number of exemplars of the correct singular and plural labels had been taught, the girl appropriately named new objects in the plural even though only the singular labels for these objects had been taught. Thus, the girl showed response generalization.

2. Vary the acceptable responses during training: This tactic led to an increase in the children’s creative block building. Since Goetz and Baer’s study, others (e.g., Miller & Neuringer, 2000; Esch, Esch, & Love, 2009) have shown that reinforcing variability in children can lead to new responses that are then available for reinforcement if they should turn out to be useful, i.e.,“creative.”

3. Use high-probability instructions to increase compliance with low-probability instructions: Compliance with instructions can include a variety of functionally equivalent or similar responses. To increase the probability that a child will comply with instructions that he or she normally would not comply with, called low-probability instructions, it is often effective to start by repeatedly giving instructions that the child is likely to follow, called high-probability instructions, and reinforce compliance with those instructions.

What is the meaning of the term low-probability instructions? Describe an example

To increase the probability that a child will comply with instructions that he or she normally would not comply with, called low-probability instructions it is often effective to start by repeatedly giving instructions that the child is likely to follow, called high-probability instructions, and reinforce compliance with those instructions.

Define behavioral trap. Describe an example

A behavioral trap is a contingency in which a behavior that has been developed by programmed reinforcers is “trapped” or maintained by natural reinforcers. Talking is an obvious example of behavior that is heavily reinforced in most social environments. After speech has been established in a training situation, it may continue unabated in the natural environment because of the natural contingencies of reinforcement for it there.

Suppose a manager at a local fast food restaurant has encouraged staff to show frequent desirable customer service behaviors. Describe the details of a plausible VI/LH schedule that the manager might use to maintain the desirable service behaviors at a high rate

During a shift, the manager might use a quiet wrist alarm and set it to go off at varying intervals. Each time it goes off, the manager might check the nearest staff member to see if that staff is showing desirable customer service behavior. If so, the person would be praised as soon as the customer has been served. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

What is meant by “recruitment of reinforcement”? Illustrate with an example that is not in this chapter

Recruitment of reinforcement is when an individual emits a desirable behavior and then tells someone about it in order to receive positive feedback. For example, at a basketball practice when players are practicing on their own, a young player might make three foul shots in a row, and then tell the coach about it. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

briefly explain why considerations regarding generality of respondent behavior differ from those regarding operant behavior

When programming for generality of operant behavior, we often want the behavior to occur to new stimuli (stimulus generalization), we want improvements to transfer to related behaviors (response generalization), and we want the behavior to be maintained over time. For most treatments involving respondent conditioning, however, we are typically concerned only with maintenance of a conditioned reflex over time. For example, in the example in the text in which adults suffering from chronic constipation were conditioned to have a bowel movement at a particular time of day as a CS, it would have been very inconvenient if bowel movements generalized to a variety of different times (stimulus generalization) or if there was an increase in a variety of bowel movements such as diarrhea (response generalization). Rather, they were simply concerned with maintaining that particular time of day as a CS for a bowel movement.

Give two examples of the unaware-misapplication pitfall involving stimulus generalization, (a) one of which involves generalization of a desirable behavior to an inappropriate situation and (b) the other of which involves generalization of an undesirable behavior

For example, a child is taught to say "Isn't this fun?" at family gatherings, and then says it at a family funeral. (b) For example, a child is taught to use swear words when playing with friends on the street, and then emits those swear words when talking to grandma and grandpa.

Give an example of the unaware-misapplication pitfall involving response generalization

Any plausible example is acceptable, such as the case of a young child who, after getting his own way with his parents by yelling in a restaurant, yells even more loudly the next time they are in a restaurant.

State the failure-to-apply pitfall. Describe an example of it that involves failure to program for desirable Generalization

For example, some parents of a young child might ignore their child's temper tantrums at home, but they give into the tantrums if they occur in stores or restaurants (perhaps because they don't want to seem like mean parents), thereby failing to program for stimulus generalization of desirable behaviors. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

Define rule behaviorally. Give an example not given in this chapter

In behavioral terminology, a rule is a verbal stimulus that describes a situation in which a particular behavior will lead to a particular consequence. Speaking loosely, it is a statement that a specific operant behavior will have a specific good or bad outcome in a particular situation. When we were infants, rules were meaningless. As we grew older, we learned that following rules often led to rewards (e.g., “If you eat all your vegetables, you can have dessert.”) or enabled us to avoid punishers (e.g., “If you’re not quiet, I’ll send you to your room.”). Thus, a rule can function as an SD—a cue that emitting the behavior specified by the rule will lead to the reinforcer identified in the rule, or a cue that not following the rule will lead to a punisher.

Describe an example of a rule that was stated by the figure skater just before competing

The skater said to herself, "If I take it one step at a time, and if I focus on the things that I do when I'm skating well at practices, I will skate well here."

A teacher complains to a friend, “When I tell the children to stay at their desks and work, they never listen to me.” Describe the contingencies that are likely operating with respect to that rule given by the teacher to the kids in the class

It is likely that following the rule by the children is not reinforced, and emitting behavior contrary to the rule is reinforced and/or not punished. Other plausible answers are also acceptable.

Describe an example of a partial rule not given in this chapter. What aspects of the three-term contingency does your partial rule identify? What are the missing parts that the partial rule implied?

A partial rule would be "Look both ways!" The antecedent (crossing the street) and the consequence (to avoid getting hit by a vehicle) are implied. The behavior is to look both ways, which is identified. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

Describe an example of a ply, a track, and an augmental not given in this chapter. State why each example fits the definition of the type of rule it illustrates

"You must be in bed before 11pm" - this is a ply because it is implied there will be a reprimand from the rule giver if not compliant "Watch your step on the path, it's icy" - this is track because the ice on the path you may slip on is external from the rule giver. "You should go on the roller coaster, it's fun" - this is an augmental as it increases the reinforcement of going on the rollercoaster.

Define contingency-shaped behavior. Give an example not given in this chapter

Behavior that develops because of its immediate consequences rather than because of a specific statement or rule. An example of this is that you need to press on your breaks before you hit the car in front of you.

Define rule-governed behavior. Give an example not given in this chapter

Rule-governed behavior is behavior that is controlled by the statement of a rule. For example, if someone tells you, "Don't drink that coffee until it cools off," and if you wait for a few minutes before drinking the coffee, your behavior is rule- governed. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

Describe two common differences between rule-governed and contingency-shaped behavior

Contingency-Shaped Behavior Rule-Governed Behavior a. Strengthened by immediate b. Frequently involves delayed consequences a. Typically strengthened gradually b. Frequently occurs on the first through trial and error opportunity after the rule is presented

Give an example of an indirect effect of a reinforcer for your behavior

For example, a student living at home cleans her room, and an hour later a parent notices it and says, "Your room looks great. Good job," and this strengthens the student's room cleaning. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

Briefly describe four situations in which the addition of rules to a behavior modification program might be especially helpful. Give an example of each

When rapid behavior change is desirable; (b) when consequences that one might provide for a behavior are too delayed to directly reinforce that behavior; (c) when one would like to maintain a behavior for which natural reinforcers are immediate but highly intermittent; and (d) when a specific behavior will lead to immediate and severe punishment, and therefore some alternative behavior is desired. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

Describe, using examples, three explanations for why we might follow rules that identify very delayed consequences

(a) Although the reinforcer identified in a rule might be delayed for an individual, other people might provide immediate consequences if the individual follows (or does not follow) the rule. (b) An individual might follow a rule and then immediately make reinforcing statements to him or herself. (c) Because of our history of being punished for failing to follow rules with deadlines, rehearsal of the deadline may cause us to feel anxious, and responding to a rule to beat the deadline will then make us feel a lot better (through escape conditioning). Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

What is one explanation of the behavior of someone who fails to wear a helmet when riding a bicycle even though that person knows that wearing a helmet could prevent brain damage from an accident?

There are two reasons. First, there may be immediate mild punishers for wearing a helmet (e.g., it may be hot and uncomfortable). Second, rules are very ineffective if they identify a behavior that has a low probability of being associated with consequences.

What is one explanation of the relative ineffectiveness of such rules as “I’m going to stop eating desserts”?

There are two reasons. First, there are immediate consequences for behavior that are incompatible with the behavior specified by the rule (e.g., extra deserts are very reinforcing and flossing one's teeth is likely to be mildly aversive). Second, the consequences for complying with the rule are too small to be effective on any one instance, and are only cumulatively significant (it takes many extra desserts to have hazardous health effects, and many missed instances of flossing one's teeth to be harmful).

In a sentence identify five characteristics of rules that are often effective in controlling behavior, even when the outcomes are delayed

Rules that describe specific circumstances and deadlines for specific behavior that will lead to sizeable and probable outcomes are often effective, even when the outcomes are delayed. On the other hand, rules that describe behavior and the circumstances for it vaguely, that do not identify a deadline for the behavior, and that lead to small or improbable consequences for the behavior are often ineffective.

In general terms, what do we mean by goal? Describe an example of a behavioral goal not in this chapter. Describe an example of an outcome goal not in this chapter

A goal describes a level of performance towards which an individual or group should work. For an example of a behavioral goal, a student might set a goal of studying two hours each day. For an example of an outcome goal, a person might set a goal of losing 2 pounds in a week. Any appropriate example is acceptable

From a behavioral perspective, what is a goal?

A goal is a level of performance or outcome that an individual or group attempts to achieve. Goal setting is the process of making goals for oneself or one or more other people. An example would be a salesperson setting the goal of making a certain number of sales per week.

Briefly list six of the eight conditions that summarize effective versus ineffective goal setting

Any 6 of the following: (a) Specific goals are more effective than vague goals; (b) goals with respect to learning specific skills should include mastery criteria; (c) goals should identify the circumstances under which the desirable behavior should occur; (d) realistic, challenging goals are more effective than "Do your best" goals; (e) public goals are more effective than private goals; (f) goal setting is more effective if deadlines are included; (g) goal setting plus feedback is more effective than goal setting alone; and (h) goal setting is most effective when individuals are committed to the goals.

What is a mastery criterion? Describe an example not in this chapter

A mastery criterion is a specific guideline for performing a skill such that if the guideline is met, the skill is likely to be mastered. For example, a mastery criterion for shooting foul shots in basketball might be to make 10 in a row. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

From a behavioral perspective, why might realistic, challenging goals be more effective than do-your-best goals?

If you set a realistic goal for an individual, you are more likely to consistently provide back- up reinforcers for meeting that goal than when you simply tell someone to "Do your best." The reason is that, with a specific goal, you and the individual will agree on whether or not the goal has been met. But you may not always agree that the individual has done their best, and may therefore be less likely to reinforce that person's behavior in such situations

From a behavioral perspective, why might public goals be more effective than private goals?

Public goals may be more effective than private goals because public goals result in a public standard against which performance can be evaluated, and they imply social consequences for achieving or not achieving the goals.

What do the authors mean by commitment in the context of goal setting?

Commitment refers to statements or actions by the learner that indicate that the goal is important to the learner, that the learner will work toward it, and that the learner recognizes the benefits of doing so.

Define modeling. How was it incorporated into the therapy sessions with James?

Modeling is a procedure by which a sample of a given behavior is demonstrated to an individual to induce that individual to engage in a similar behavior. As is true for rules, modeling can be powerful. Convince yourself of this by performing the following simple experiments:
For an entire day, speak only in a whisper and note how often people around you also whisper.
Yawn conspicuously in the presence of other people and note their frequency of yawning.
Stand on the corner of a street where there are lots of pedestrians and look at the sky for 30 minutes and note how many people stop and also look at the sky.
With James, the therapist modeled the behavior of "feeling the soles of his feet," smiling, and then walking away from the situation.

List the four components of BST

BST involves four critical components: instruction, modeling, rehearsal, and feedback

Describe the specific BST steps you might use to overcome the withdrawal behavior of a nursery school child who never interacts with other children. Identify the basic principles and procedures being applied in your program

Instructions: you can tell the child how to interact with other children through specific instructions like "ask what her favourite colour is," or "go play with another child instead of staying here alone" Modeling: showing the child how fun it can be to play with other children instead of by yourself (using peers) Rehearsal: just practicing social skills with the child outside of the target situation like when with parents or siblings (using multiple models) Reinforcement: give the child praise when they show great social skills or interaction with other children

Define or describe behavioral rehearsal or role-playing. Give an example

In behaviour rehearsal, a client plays a role that enables them to practice particular behaviors in a practice setting, in order to increase the likelihood that those behaviors will occur appropriately in the real world. Ex) a client rehearsed the behavior of asking for a date in the presence of the therapist.

What does the term physical guidance mean? How does it differ from gestural prompting (see Chapter 12)?

Physical guidance is the application of physical contact to induce a person to go through the motions of a desired behaviour. It differs because gestural prompting doesn't involve physical contact.

Identify a behavior that you were influenced to perform as a result of physical guidance. Describe how physical guidance was involved

Ex) when I was a dancer, my dance teacher used to physically move our bodies to where they wanted it to be. Physical guidance was involved because they would show us physically what to do and where to move.

What is generalized imitation? Describe an example

Generalized imitation is where a person, after learning to imitate a number of behaviours perhaps with some shaping, fading, physical guidance and reinforcement learns to imitate a new response on the first trial without reinforcement. Ex) a child may be asked to point to a picture of a dog where a picture of a dog and 3 other pictures are laid out on a table. The teacher may use various prompts, such as pointing to the correct picture or showing the child a picture identical to the correct picture. If the child doesn't respond right to 1/3 prompts, the teacher may gently take the child’s hand and move it to the right picture. Eventually the teacher should fade out the physical guidance.

What do we mean by the term situational inducement?

The influence of a behaviour by using situations and occasions that already exert control over the behaviour.

Describe each of the four categories of situational inducement

Rearranging the existing surroundings - altering the items in ones room to promote better and more persistent studying behaviour
Moving an activity to a new location - changing the location of a desirable activity that's deficient is an approach for increasing the occurrence of that activity
Relocating people - teachers will rearrange the seating plan for students who keep talking
Changing the time of the activity - taking advantage of the fact that certain stimuli and behaviour tendencies change predictably with the passage of time

Give an example from your own experience of each of the four categories of situational inducement

Rearranging the existing surroundings - when I was studying for my LSAT I moved my desk to a place in the corner of my room and took everything off my desk, and left my phone in a different room to help me focus on my studying.
Moving an activity to a new location - this goes along with my LSAT studying, is that I used to be distracted by looking out the window, or looking at the pictures I had on my desk so I would get distracted so I moved to the corner
Relocating people - I have definitely been moved from a seating plan when talking too much
Changing the time of the activity - I used to follow a strict schedule on when I would go to bed, but now I go to bed whenever Im tired so I don't get too much or too little sleep

According to the proposed guidelines for the use of rules, modeling, and physical guidance,
What behavior principle is used with all three procedures?

positive reinforcement

According to the proposed guidelines for the use of rules, modeling, and physical guidance, What two other behavioral procedures are likely to be used with all three procedures?

fading and shaping

How do people who are not behaviorists or behavior modifiers conceptualize motivation? Illustrate with an example

Many people who are not behaviorists or behavior modifiers conceptualize motivation as some "thing" inside us that causes our actions. For example, Brittany's hockey coach says that she is highly motivated because she puts forth a great effort at practice, shows up on time, and is eager to practice more than the other players. The coach is conceptualizing motivation as the cause of Brittany's behavior. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

What is a conceptual problem with the traditional view of motivation? Illustrate with an example

A conceptual limitation of the traditional view of motivation is that it involves circular reasoning. The causal "thing" (drive, motivation, etc.) is inferred from the behavior that it is supposed to explain (e.g., Why does Brittany put forth a lot of effort at hockey practice? Because she is a motivated player. How do we know she is a motivated player? Because she puts forth a great effort.). Any appropriate example is acceptable.

Describe three practical problems with conceptualizing motivation as an internal cause of behavior

a) The idea that the cause of our behaviors is within us may cause us to ignore the behavioral principles for changing behavior and the data that supports the effectiveness of those behavioral principles; (b) it may influence some people to blame individuals for inferior performances (e.g., "Shawn is just not motivated enough to play baseball"), vs. trying to help individuals improve their performance; (c) it may influence some to blame themselves for failure to emit certain behaviors (e.g., "I am just not motivated enough to get an A+ in this course") rather than examining self-management strategies for improving performance.

Define motivating operation (MO). In simple terms, what is an MO

MO is an event or operation that (a) temporarily alters the effectiveness of a reinforcer or punisher - a value altering effect and (b) influences behavior that normally leads to that reinforcer or punisher - a behavior altering effect. MO temporarily changes what you want and tells you how to get it.

State the full terms for the following abbreviations: UMEO, UMAO, CMEO, CMAO

UMEO - Unconditioned motivating establishing operation
UMAO - Unconditioned motivating abolishing operation
CMEO - Conditioned motivating establishing operation
CMAO - Conditioned motivating abolishing operation

Define motivating establishing operation (MEO)

MEO an event or operation that temporarily increases the effectiveness of a reinforcer or punisher - the value- altering effect , and increases the likelihood of behaviors that lead to that reinforcer or decreases the likelihood of behaviors that lead to that punisher- the behavior altering effect.

Describe an example of a UMEO involving a reinforcer

UMEO the value altering effect is innate and the behavior altering effect is learned. Example: food deprivation

Describe an example of a UMEO involving a punisher

the temperature in the room

Describe an example of a CMEO involving a reinforcer

CMEO - both the value altering and behavior-altering effects are learned. Example: Coach Dawson's description of the points program, which increased the reinforcing value of points and increased practice behaviors to earn points.

Describe an example of a CMEO involving a punisher

when a basketball coach makes his players run three laps under the hot sun as a timeout contingent for misbehaviours during practice such as rough play and swearing

Define motivating abolishing operation (MAO)

event or operation that temporarily decreases the effectiveness of a reinforcer or punisher and decreases the likelihood of behaviors that normally lead to that reinforcer or increases the likelihood of behaviors that normally lead to that punisher.

Describe an example of a UMAO involving a reinforcer

food satiation

Describe an example of a UMAO involving a punisher

During the winter an unheated room is a punisher. Increasing the room temperature is a UMAO for the punishing effect of the cold room, and it increases the likelihood of going into that room.

Describe an example of a CMAO involving a reinforcer

Child can no longer exchange points for extra desserts

Describe an example of a CMAO involving a punisher

when the effectiveness of a punisher is decreased. In the example of the basketball coach, the basketball coach announced that the players could still earn points for not misbehaving, however they could no longer use those points for a game of scrimmage.

Are the value-altering and behavior-altering effects innate or learned for UMEOs, UMAOs, CMEOs, CMAOs?

innate

Suppose that a football team has been practicing for an hour in the hot sun without water. The coach says to one of the players, “Here are the keys to my car. Get the bottles of water from the trunk.” Would this request be classified as an SD or a CMEO for getting the water? Justify your choice

The football coach's request to get the water is an SD because the players are already thirsty and want water. The coach's request is a cue that tells the players what to do (go to the car) to get what they already want (water).

Suppose that a pianist sets a goal for practicing a piece: “Before I can stop practicing, I have to play this piece through 10 times in a row without making a mistake.” Is that goal best conceptualized as an SD or a CMEO? Justify your choice

The rule that the pianist sets for herself is more like a CMEO than an SD because the rule temporarily alters the value of the conditioned reinforcer of playing the piece without making a mistake, and increases practice behavior that will lead to that reinforcer.

Define echoic. Describe an example not in the book

a vocal imitative response that is developed and maintained by social reinforcement. Example: if a teacher were to ask a student to say "washroom" and the student replied "washroom" and received praise (or other reinforcement from the teacher), the verbal response "washroom" is an echoic verbal response.

Define tact. Describe an example not in the book

A tact is a verbal naming response that is developed and maintained by social reinforcement. For example, if a person points to a cat and asks "what is that?" and the child replies "a cat" and receives praise, the naming response "cat" is a tact.

Define mand. Describe an example not in the book:

A mand is a verbal response under control of a MO that is reinforced by either the removal of an aversive stimulus or by a corresponding reinforcer. For example, if a young child is bored and asks a parent for "play time", the response "play time" is a mand.

How was a CMEO used to motivate seat belt use among senior drivers?

The signs ``Buckle Up Stay Safe" that were placed around the town of Pleasant Oaks were a CMEO that increased the reinforcing value of wearing a fastened seat belt, and increased the behavior of buckling up.