PSY 102

empirical research

grounded in objective and tangible evidence

case study

focuses on one or few people

good for in-depth research with rare people

not good for generalizing

generalizing

applying your findings to wider groups of people

naturalistic observation

observing in a natural environment without disturbing anything

must be discreet

beneficially accurate data

difficult to control the research

surveys

list of questions that can be answered by research participants

beneficial for large amounts of info from numerous people and generalization

harder to get in-depth info

mode

the most frequently occurring response

median

middle of the data set

mean

average

archival analysis

using existing records to answer a research question

beneficial for cheap and fast data collection

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

helpful for diseases and factors that change over time

limited by time

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

benefit: shorter time investment

doesnt account for age factors

correlational research

A correlation means there is a relationship between two or more variables, but that does NOT imply cause and effect

confounding variables

some other factor, other than what you are studying, that causes the relationship between the two variables

correlation coefficient

the statistic that reflects the correlation between two variables

experimental group

the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested

control group

the group that does not receive the experimental treatment

quasi experiment

researchers cannot randomly assign participants (predetermined or participant chooses)

Operationalized definition

precisely defining our variables so that others can perfectly understand exactly how and what a researcher measured in an experiment

random assignment

each person in the study has an equal probability of being assigned to the different groups (experimental vs. control)

single-blind

participants do not know which group they are in, but researchers do

double-blind

neither the participants nor the researcher knows which individuals have been assigned to which group, reducing bias

Independent Variable (IV)

variable being manipulated

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable you are measuring to see what effect the IV has

the dependent variable DEPENDS on what the IV was

random sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

random assignment

Every member has an an equal chance of being assigned to a group

reliability

the ability to consistently produce a given result

validity

how accurately something is measured

ethics

are moral principles or societal expectations that govern a person's behavior or the conducting of an activity

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

human subjects/participants involved means that the IRB must deem the study ethical before it can continue

Belmont Report principles

respect, beneficence, justice

informed consent

a written description of the experiment, tells participants they may quit and data will be confidential

when deception is involved there must be debriefing to make the experiment ethical.

APA ethical principles

1. Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
2. Fidelity and Responsibility
3. Integrity
4. Justice
5. Respect

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

Animal research equivalent to the IRB

the Tuskegee study

an unethical study about syphilis in which subjects (African-American men) were denied treatment so that the effects of the disease could be studied

Sir Francis Galton (Galton)

determined that eminence and genius seemed to occur within different families. he believed that high statues people were more intelligent

Alfred Binet

assumed mental abilities develop with age, developed mental age tests

IQ

Binet's mental age is now called IQ

IQ = (mental age/chronological time)x100

Lewis Terman

revised Binet's works and developed the Stanford-binet test, start of educational testing

David Weschler

Weschler adult intelligence scale (WAIS) as well as WISC and WPPSI children and preschoolers. Most commonly administered tests today

g factor theory of intelligence

existence of a broad mental capacity that influences performance on cognitive ability measures

primary mental abilities theory (Thurstone)

verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed and reasoning

Crystalized intelligence

Apply previously acquired knowledge to current problems

fluid intelligence

The ability to deal with a novel problem-solving situation for which personal experience does not provide a solution

Caroll's 3 stratum Theory

general, broad, and narrow

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence ​

practical, creative, and analytical intelligence

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

linguistic, mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, intrapersonal

4 elements of emotional intelligence

perceiving emotions, facilitating emotions, understanding emotions, managing emotions

types of measurements of intelligence

achievement, aptitude, psychological

types of reliability

test-retest, internal consistency, inter judge reliability

types of validity

construct, content, criterion related

gender differences - intelligence

females - better at spelling, verbal ability, nonverbal memory, sensation, emotion-detecting ability; men- better at math and spatial abilities

intellectually gifted

IQ of of 130+

intellectually disabled

IQ of 70 or less

thinking

internal language/speech

mental thinking processes

propositional thought, imaginal thought, motoric thought

propositional thought

statement expressing an idea

imaginal thought

things we see, hear, or feel in our minds

motoric thought

mental representations of motor movements

concept

mental categories

prototype

most typical/familiar member of a category

deductive reasoning

top-down reasoning -\> general principle to conclusion, more certain

inductive reasoning

bottom-up reasoning -\> specific facts to general principle, more uncertain

stumbling blocks in reasoning

Distraction by irrelevant information, belief bias, emotions and framing

stage 1 of problem solving

interpret (frame) and understand the problem

stage 2 of problem solving

generate hypotheses or possible solutions

stage 3 of problem solving

test the solutions, hypotheses, seeking to disconfirm one or more of them

stage 4 of problem solving

evaluate results and, if necessary, revise steps 1, 2, or 3

algorithm

formulas or procedures that automatically generate correct solutions

heauristics

general problem-solving strategy that you apply to certain situations

representative heuristic

mental shortcut of assessing existing mental prototype

availability heauristic

judgments based on the available information in our memory

confirmation bias

searching for evidence to support biased beliefs

schema

a concept of framework that organizes and interprets information -> stored in long-term memory

experts have multiple schemas allowing fast access to information

script

sequence of events unfolding in a standardized pattern

critical period-lifespan

age range where experiences are needed for development

sensitive period

optimal age range for development - but not needed

germinal phase

week 1-2

Zygote (a fertilized egg)​

Not yet attached to uterus

embryo phase

weeks 3-8

everything starts forming

implanted in uterus

fetal stage

weeks 9-40

prenatal influences on environment

anything the mother ingests

teratogen

any factor that can cause a birth defect

infantile reflexes that have advantages

rooting (chewing), grasping (grabbing), babinksi (toes curling), and moro (startle)

least developed sense at birth

vision

most developed sense at birth

smell

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor
2. preoperational
3. concrete operational
4. formal operational

Assimilation - piaget

incorporating new experiences into existing schema

accommodation

changing a schema based on a new experience

sensorimoter

birth-2 understanding the world through sensory experiences and motor interactions

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

symbolic thought

words and can represent objects, needs, or actions

limitations to the Preoperational stage

conservation, irreversibility, centration, animism, egocentrism

kohlberg's stages of moral development

preconventional (prior to age 9)

conventional (adolescence)

post-conventional

erikson stage 1

trust vs mistrust - (infancy) -\> responsive caregivers help develop trust, unresponsive can make babies feel scared

erikson stage 2

autonomy vs shame & doubt - (1-3) -\> toddlers establish independence and will lead to self-doubt if denied

erikson stage 3

Initiative vs. guilt - (3/4-6) -\> kids learning to assert control over their world, if unsuccessful they develop guilt

erikson stage 4

industry vs inferiority - (7-11) -\> compare to peers, if they measure up they develop pride, if not they grow insecure

erikson stage 5

identity vs role confusion - (12-18) -\> struggle with finding themselves, success leads to better idea of self identity, failure leads to role confusion and weak sense of self

erikson stage 6

Intimacy vs. isolation - (early adulthood) -\> yearning to share lives with others unless sense of self was not achieved (feeling of loneliness)

erikson stage 7

generativity vs stagnation - (30-64) -\> finding our life's work, if not mastered stagnation and disconnection with other may happen

erikson stage 8

integrity vs despair (65+) -\> reflect on life and feel sense of success or failure