AP Exam

structuralism

early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

functionalism

an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

cognitive psychology

the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems.

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential

psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

empirical evidence

information acquired by observation or experimentation

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors(independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable).

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting.

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

normal curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life-support center

dendrites

a neuron's often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

endorphins

"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

fight-or-flight response

a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

limbic system

neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

parietal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

temporal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

Wernicke's area

a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

identical (monozygotic) twins

develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind.

activation-synthesis theory

theory that dreams are the brain's attempt to synthesize random neural activity.

depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

alcohol use disorder

(popularly known as alcoholism) alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

cocktail party effect

your ability to attend to one voice among a sea of other voices

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

cornea

the eye's clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

afterimages

sensations that linger after the stimulus is removed

gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

olfaction

the sense of smell

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

observational learning

learning by observing others

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

episodic memory

an explicit memory of personally experienced events

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first items (primacy effect) items in a list

encoding failure

the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory

Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve

the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

fixation

in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common