Unit Two Ap Psychology

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

cell body

the cell's life support center

Dendrites

Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action

antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

Nerves (PNS)

bundles of axons

sensory neurons (afferent)

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor neurons (efferent)

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Controls involuntary activity of visceral muscles and internal organs and glands.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

lesion

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

EEG (electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

technique that measures brain activity by detecting tiny magnetic fields generated by the brain

CT scan

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body

PET

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.

Brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Pons

coordinates movement and controls sleep

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

limbic system

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

Amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

frontal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement

parietal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch.

occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

temporal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

sequential processing

the processing of one aspect of a problem at a time; used when we focus attention on new or complex tasks

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Heredity

Passing of traits from parents to offspring

envrionment

every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

Genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

identical (monozygotic) twins

develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

molecular behavior genetics

the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior

Epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

social script

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

Roger Sperry

studied split brain patients; showed that left/right hemispheres have different functions

Michael Gazzaniga

Conducted the "HE-ART" experiments with split brain patients

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

Ernest Hilgard

famous for his hypnosis research & the theory that a "hidden observer" theory

sleep

periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

Hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

hypnagogic sensations

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

suprachiasmatic nucleus

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep