psych exam 4 chapt 11/12/13/14

Personality

This is the set of common human psychological characteristics and unique patterns of traits and behavior possessed by each individual. These sets of traits and behavior patterns are organized, integrated, and relatively enduring.

Grand theories

The term given to describe theories of personality, primarily developed during the early to mid-20th century, whose creators wished to address all of the important areas of study of personality. The most prominent of these theories were those developed by psychoanalysts, behaviorists, and humanists.

Id

That part of freud's structural model which represents the irrational portion of the mind which lacks moral restraints or conception of right and wrong, and cares only for satisfaction of its own cravings-- seeking pleasure and avoiding pain (the pleasure principle). This operates primarily at the level of the unconscious mind and can be expressed in dream, uncontrolled behavior, and satisfaction of basic drives.

Pleasure principle

According to freud, this drives a person to seek rewarding experiences, while avoiding pain and discomfort. It is what drives the id.

Ego

The idea which is also termed secondary process, is the aspect of freud's structural model which represents part of the mind which operates according to the reality principle. Partly conscious, partly unconscious, this mediates between demands of the real world, the blind strivings of the id, and the judgements of the superego.

Reality principle

According to Freud, just as the pleasure principle drives the id, the ego is driven by this principle. This principle allows the person to delay gratification in the service of a later beneficial outcome, and is the principle by which the ego makes decisions bearing on the survival and functioning of the person.

Superego

According to Freud's structural model, this idea represents the individual's conscience, and is the origin of human morality. This observes the work of the ego and passes judgement on it--punishing the psyche with guilt or shame for wrongdoing, and pointing in the direction of ideal behavior.

Libido

Freud proposed that human beings are born with a limited fund of psychic "energy," or life force. This term has an erotic foundation, although its effects need not be explicitly sexual in nature nor bear only upon sexual life.

Stages of psychosexual development.

Freud believed that children pass through five developmental stages of psychosexual growth. For a healthy personality to develop, the child must successfully complete the tasks and resolve the conflicts which typically occur at each stage. Fixation at any particular stage may result in adult neurosis or distortion of personality. The stages are termed oral, anal, phallic (oedipal), latency and genital.

Neurosis

A general term describing adult emotional illness or distortion of personality, popularized in the writings of Freud and his followers. Until relatively recently, this continued to be used as a "catch-all" for psychological disorder, but it was abandoned in favor of more specific diagnostic labels drawn from psychiatry.

Erogenous zone

Any part of the body with particular sensitivity to pleasurable stimulation, generally associated with sexuality.

Ego defense mechanisms

A group of psychological mechanisms described in part by S.Freud but primarily by his daughter, Anna Freud. This is used to keep threatening material from reaching awareness. This includes repression, denial, displacement, projection, reaction formation, sublimation, and undoing.

Repression

An ego defense mechanism identified by Freud, where an unacceptable wish, thought, or impulse is removed from conscious awareness.

Parsimony

In science, this term describes the principle that if there are more than one competing explanations for some phenomenon, each plausible, scientists like to choose the simpler of the explanations. This is because simpler explanations contain fewer assumptions that might be incorrect. the principle of this is known as Occam's Razor.

Falsification

When a theory is shown through empirical evidence to be false.

Accurate empathy

Carl Rogers' term to describe the quality of communication between two people where each person genuinely listens to the other's words, perceives the intention accurately, and withholds judgement.

Congruence

Carl Rogers' term to describe an environment of development where those surrounding the developing person are genuine-- that is, truly being themselfes and not presenting a salf that reflects the values and wishes of others.

Unconditional positive regard

Carl Rogers' term to describe relationships where the love and approval a person receives from important others is given freely and is not dependent upon conditions. For example, if a therapist treats a client with aproval, respect and high regard when the client behaves in a way the therapist thinks is constructive--but not if the client engages in self destructive behavior

Positive self-regard

Carl Rogers' term to describe feelings of self-worth and self-esteem, and being loved and accepted. According to Rogers, this is dependent upon experiences of unconditional positive regard from others.

Conditions of worth

According to Carl Rogers, this is what a person must fulfill to obtain love and approval from important people in his or her life. This only exists within relationships which lack unconditional positive regard.

Self-esteem

A person's cognitive and emotional assessment or evaluation of his or her self-worth. This may be global- a person's assessment of overall self-worth- or specific to a given domain.

Traits

Stable, enduring personality attributes and motives for behavior. These may generally be described using adjectives (e.g., extraverted, conscientious, cheerful, honest, compassionate). These are limited in number, and each person differs in the degree to which they display any particular one.

States

Emotions, moods, or other characteristics and attributes which are temporary in nature. This can be contrasted with traits, which are assumed to be enduring. For example, anger is a temporary state, whereas short-tempered is a relatively enduring trait.

Trait perspective

A branch of personality psychology which emphasizes description rather than explanation of people's characteristic patterns of behavior, thought, emotion, and motivation. Those working from this perspective adhere to the idea that human personality may be reduced to a limited number of descriptions and description profiles.

Superordinate traits

Hans Eysenck's term for the two basic trait dimensions within which all possible lower order traits could be found. These trait dimensions are extraversion-introversion and emotional instability-emotional stability.

Five-factor model

An Empirical trait model of personality. Openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism. This model is the most widely accepted personality model.

Revised NEO personality inventory (NEO PR-R)

The most frequently used test of the five-factor model of personality.

Nonshared environment

The unique environmental factors and experiences encountered by each developing child but not encountered by other children in the home. For example, a childhood illness, a traumatic experience, a different set of friends, and so forth.

Shared environment

Environmental factors and experiences shared by all children living in a home- for example, the parent's socioeconomic status, language and culture, beliefs and attitudes, and childrearing and discipline styles.

National character stereotypes

Shared ideas about the typical parsonality type for any given culture or nation. This has been shown to lack validity in spite of the fact that members of the culture in question frequently accept the stereotype.

Rorschach test

A projective personality and mental health test originally devised by hermann orschach in 1921. The test consists of a standard set of five color and five black-and-white symmetrical inkblots. The test-taker is then asked to describe what he or she sees in each blot and to identify the specific areas of the blot from which the image is constructed.

Validity

The degree to which a test actually measures what it is intended to measure.

Reliability

This kind of test is constructed so that if it is intended to measure something enduring about a person, the person will score much the same if taking the test on two or more separate occasions. a reliable test is one that bypasses subjectivity.

Thematic apperception test (TAT)

The TAT is a projective personality test first devised during the 1930s by henry Murray and Christina Morgan. In the TAT the test-taker is presented with 31 emotionally loaded but ambiguous drawings and asked to tell the "story" of drawings. According to proponents of the test, in doing so the test-taker reveals important motives, drives, conflicts, and emotions.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

The first and most frequently used objective test of personality. It has shown particular validity in distinguishing between abnormal personality traits indicating mental health problems, and, to a lesser extent, validity in distinguishing normal personality traits.

Rank-order stability

A measure of personality stability based upon the pattern of rank order of traits (from high to low) for each person in a sample from one measurement period to the next.

Mean-level stability

A measure of personality stability based upon comparison of the mean score for each individual trait among a simple as a whole from one measurement period to the next.

Characteristic adaptations

Dan Adams' term to describe aspects of personality such as goals, values, beliefs, social roles, and plans for the future. According to Adams, this changes substantially over the life span.

Self-narratives

Internal "narratives of self" which evolve through the life span. these are stories and myths people tell themselves about events in their lives and personal characteristics which reflect their current understanding of their place in the world and the meaning of their life.

Psychological disorder

This is defined differently by different theorists and in different contexts. In its broadest sense, the definition is circular: any recognizable cluster of behaviors and states of mind that mental health professionals agree constitute mental illness and to which they attach a descriptive label.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

The Manual published by the american psychiatric association which classifies, describes and presents diagnostic criteria for psychological disorders. This is the standard for diagnosis among psychologists as well as psychiatrists, and presents the medical model of mental illness in the most coherent and consistent fashion yet devised.

Abnormal psychology

The scientific study of states of mind and behavior which deviate both from the statistical norm (the average) and from what mental health professionals consider to be healthy psychological functioning.

Psychological dysfunction

Any breakdown in mental functioning- cognitive, emotional, or behavioral. The boundaries between "functional" and "dysfunctional" are often fuzzy, however and there is wide disagreement as to how to characterize these boundaries.

Impairment in functioning

The concept used for diagnosis in the DSM to cover situations where a person has symptoms of a disorder but does not experience personal distress.

Myth of mental illness view

A view of psychological disorder pioneered by Thomas Szasz which proposes that "mental illness" is really a metaphor for problems in living and does not refer to actual illness or disease processes.

Medical model

The general term used to describe views of psychological disorder which frame them in a medical context. Unlike the myth of mental illness view, this views psychological disorders as actual illnesses with specific causes and which necessitate treatment with psychotherapy, medication, or some other process.

Involuntary commitment

When a person is admitted to a psychiatric facility (mental hospital) against his or her will by order of the court. proceedings to commit someone in this way may be brought on by individuals or the state.

Deinstitutionalization

A policy instituted in the United States and other industrialized nations during the 1960s which encouraged shorter hospital stays for those with mental illnesses and provided stricter criteria by which people with psychological disorders or developmental disabilities could be hospitalized in the first place.

Stigma

A social "badge" or mark of shame or disgrace resulting from a parson's behavior or membership in a disapproved or discriminated-against group. This traditionally has been a problem for those diagnosed with psychological disorders.

Harmful dysfunction view

A view of psychological disorder pioneered by Jerome Wakefield. According to this view, disorder exists when symptoms cause harm according to subjective social or cultural judgments, and there is objective evidence of dysfunction. Dysfunction is said to exist only when a psychological characteristic or mechanism is not performing the function for which it evolved through natural selection.

Insanity defense

Criminal defense strategy based upon the proposition that a defendant did commit a crime but should not be held responsible because he or she did not understand the nature or consequences of the crime or could not distinguish between right and wrong.

Anxiety

An unpleasant feeling of apprehension and worry experienced in anticipation of some sort of threat. This includes cognitive, emotional, psychological, and behavioral components. This tends to be future-oriented, in that it typically is experienced in response to anticipation of a future threat, rather than in response to an immediate threat, which is the domain of fear.

Comorbidity

The co-occurence of more than one disorder either simultaneously or at different points in the life span.

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

This is characterized by ceaseless, pervasive, and uncontrollable worry and apprehension about the future. Worry tends to be irrational, and results in physical symptoms such as muscle tension as well as irritability, sleep difficulty, and difficulty concentrating.

Specific phobia

A powerful but irrational fear of a specific object, animal, or situation. The most common are often those for which evolutionary roots are suspected (e.g., fear of the dark or heights, fear of spiders or snakes, fear of the sight of blood, etc.)

Social phobia

Irrational anxiety over social or performance situations where one is likely to be exposed to unfamiliar people and the prospect of embarrassment or humiliation exists. This is a controversial diagnosis, because it is an extreme expression of the normal characteristic of shyness.

Panic attack

A brief period- generally peaking at about 10 minutes- within which a person experiences overwhelming anxiety focused upon unexplainable, terrifying physical sensations. These sensations may include shortness of breath, tightness in the chest, a feeling of unreality, perspiration, pounding of the heart, and an overpowering urge to flee. This is not uncommon in the population and do not necessarily signify psychological disorder.

Panic disorder

This is characterized by intense anxiety over the prospect of experiencing a panic attack. Thus, people with this have experienced at least one such attack. This may sometimes lead to agoraphobia, a fear of being in public places, crowds, or locations from which escape would be difficult.

Agoraphobia

An anxiety disorder characterized by fear of finding oneself in a potentially unsafe location which escape would be difficult. This commonly includes crowds, public places, movie theaters, cars and so forth.

Triple vulnerability theory

An integrated model of anxiety disorders created by David Barlow. According to this theory, anxiety disorders result from the interaction of three factors: generalized biological vulnerability, generalized psychological vulnerability, and specific psychological vulnerability.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

A severe anxiety disorder characterized by persistent, intrusive, anxiety-provoking thoughts usually combined with strong but irrational urges to perform repetitive, ritualistic behaviors or mental acts designed to relieve the anxiety provoked by the intrusive thoughts.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

A disorder triggered by an experience of extremely severe trauma which evokes horror, feelings of helpless, and fear for one's life or the lives of those for whom one cares. Symptoms may include re-experiencing the traumatic event in nightmares, flashbacks, or intrusive thoughts, negative changes in mood or cognition, and symptoms of psychological arousal and reactivity.

Resilience

The ability to emerge relatively intact from unexpected adverse events or to recover fully from any temporary symptoms. This is the most common human response to trauma.

Risk factor

Any variable whose presence increases the probability that a person will be diagnosed with a particular disorder. Because these are only correlated with a disorder, they cannot be said to be causes of the disorder. They simply help researchers predict who is more or less likely ultimately to develop a disorder.

Depression

A mood state characterized by sadness, low energy, fatigue, regret or guilt, feelings of low self-worth, hopelessness, and helplessness.

Mania

A highly energized mood state characterized by exaggerated feelings of elation, unrealistically high self-esteem, racing thoughts, reduced need for sleep, and ceaseless energy. This may sometimes by dysphoric-- characterized by anger, agitation, and irritability rather than elation.

Diathesis stress model

A model of psychological disorder which proposes that mental illness is most likely to be found in a person who has both genetic vulnerability to the condition and exposure to life experiences which contribute to the onset of illness.

Learned helplessness

Martin Seligman's term to describe the passivity and resignation which an animal may experience after coming to believe that it is unable to control or halt an aversive event. This then interferes with the animal's ability to recognize when it is in fact able to halt or control the event. Seligman originally theorized that this lies at the root of depressive disorders.

Hopelessness theory

A theory created by Lyn Abramson and Lauren Alloy. This theory proposes that a negative cognitive style leads to depression. This negative cognitive style leads to depression. This negative cognitive style includes three aspects: (a) attributing negative events to internal causes; (b) considering causes of negative events to be stable and global; and (c) anticipating severe negative consequences from negative events.

Negative cognitive triad

Aaron Beck's term to describe a set of irrational, chronic, and erroneous beliefs about the self, the world, and the future.

Rumination

Focusing inwardly and brooding on the possible causes and consequences of past or future negative emotions and events.

Hypomania

A less extreme form of mania characterized by reduced need for sleep, increased sexuality and humor, feelings of mental clarity, enjoyment of life, self-esteem, charm grandiosity, and increased ability to do productive work.

Schizophrenia

This is a group of related psychotic conditions characterized by severly distorted perception and experience of reality, disorganized thought and speech, and inappropriate emotions and emotional responses.

Psychotic disorder

Any disorder that includes extremely severe distortion in thinking and perception, where a person's ability to grasp reality and respond rationally is badly impaired.

Positive symptoms

Symptoms of schizophrenia which include: delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized use of language.

Negative symptoms

Symptoms of schizophrenia which include flat affect, anhedonia, alogia, and avolition.

Endophenotype

A characteristic or symptom of a disorder that is present in people with that disorder and also is present to a greater degree than would be expected by chance in close genetic relatives of the person with the disorder. This is considered to reflect what is heritable about a given disorder but, unlike most disorders, are considered simple and straightforward enough to lend themselves to genetic analysis.

Neurodevelopmental

Any factor which affects the brain but does not have a genetic origin. These events may occur prior to birth, at birth, or after birth.

Personality disorders

Pervasive, chronic patterns of inner experience and behavior which generally begin in adolescence, are inflexible, and are expressed throughout many areas of a person's life. These patterns cause distress and/ or impairment, but symptoms are generally not as severe as those of clinical disorders.

Paranoid personality disorder (PPD)

Paranoid personality disorder is characterized by mistrust and suspicion of others' motives. Those with PPD expect to be betrayed, humiliated, and taken advantage of. They are hostile and argumentative, and do not easily confide in others.

Borderline personality disorder (BPD)

A controversial personality disorder diagnosis describing a person who is impulsive, moody, and frightened of abandonment. sufferers of this have an unstable sense of self, and are plagued by feelings of emptiness and/ or worthlessness. Their relationships tend to be stormy, and they often engage in self-injuring behavior.

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD)

A personality disorder characterized by preoccupation with orderliness, perfection and control. Those with this disorder consequently lack flexibility and openness. Because they are obsessed with perfection, they are inefficient because they place order and perfection above productivity. They think in black-and-white terms when it comes to morality, are miserly with money, and find it difficult to delegate tasks to others.

Dissociative identity disorder

A highly controversial DSM diagnosis characterized by the emergence of more than one autonomous "personality" within the same body. Formerly known as "multiple personality disorder."

Dissociative disorder

A DSM category of disorder where there is one of several types of breakdowns of memory, perception, awareness, or identity.

iatrogenesis

When a clinician unwittingly (or intentionally) creates symptoms of an illness in his or her capacity as a healthcare giver.

emotion

the feeling that is produced in response to life experiences

Mood

a temporary state of mind or feeling.

affect

the general quality of feelings

doesn't refer to specific emotion or mood

differs in 2 dimensions valence (+&-) and activation/arousal (high or low)

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

basic emotions

anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise

Facial Action Coding System

Paul Ekman's coding scheme of the facial muscle configurations which create expressions of basic emotion

Duchenne smile

genuine smile

display rules

learned ways of controlling displays of emotion in social settings

James-Lange theory of emotion

theory proposing that emotions result from our interpretations of our bodily reactions to stimuli

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

theory in which the physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time

cognitive motivational relational theory of emotion

the theory propsed by richard lazardus

each emotion has a specific relational meaning or so-called "core relational theme"; that is, the appraisal of a particular person-environment relation is unique to each emotion.

two-factor theory of emotion

Schachter and Singer's theory that emotion is determined by two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling