psych paper 2

Psychology

the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes

Science

The means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation

Introspection by Wundt

A systematic method used to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations

Emergence of psychology

Watson questioned the subjectiveness of introspection

Behaviourist approach

A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning

Classical conditioning

Learning by association

Operant conditioning

Learning where behaviour is shaped and maintained by consequences

Reinforcement

A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated

Assumptions of behaviourist approach

Pavlov's research

Pavlov presented a bell (NS) with food (UCS), which caused the dog to salivate (UCR). Eventually, the dog associated the sound of the bell and food so the sound of the bell (CS) would cause the dog to salivate (CR)

Skinner's research

He suggested that learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate on their environment eg, the skinner box

Positive reinforcement

Rewards when a certain desirable behaviour is performed

Negative reinforcement

When an animal or human avoids something unpleasant

Punishment

An unpleasant consequence of behaviour

Social learning theory

A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement

Imitation

Copying the behaviour of others

Identification

When as observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model

Modelling

Imitating the behaviour of a role model

Vicarious reinforcement

Reinforcement that is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour

Mediational processes

Cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response

Assumptions of social learning theory

Role of mediational processes identified by Bandura

1. Attention2. Retention3. Motor reproduction4. Motivation

Cognitive approach

How mental processes affect behaviour

Internal mental processes

'Private' operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response

Schema

A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing

Inference

Process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour

Cognitive neuroscience

The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes

Assumptions of the cognitive approach

Theoretical models

Information processing approach

Computer models

Mind compared to a computer

Application of cognitive neuroscience

Used in computer

Biological approach

A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function

Genes

They make up chromosomes and consist of DNA

Biological structure

An arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing

Neurochemistry

Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate physiological functioning

Genotype

genetic makeup of an person

Phenotype

Characteristics of a person from both genes and environmental factors

Evolution

The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations

Assumptions of Biological approach

Genetic basis of behaviour

MZ twins have 100% concordance rate whilst DZ twins have a 50% concordance rate (same as ordinary siblings)

Psychodynamic approach

A perspective that describes the different forces, most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.

The unconscious

The part of the mind that we are unaware of but still directs much of our behaviour

Id

Entirely unconscious, made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification

Ego

The 'reality check' that balances the conflicting demands of the id and the superego

Superego

The moralistic part that represents how we ought to be

Defence mechanism

Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego

Psychosexual stages

According to Freud, five developmental stages that all children pass through

Psychosexual stage ORAL

(0 - 1 year)

Psychosexual stage ANAL

(1 - 3 years)

Psychosexual stage PHALLIC

(3 - 5 years)

Psychosexual stage LATENCY

Earlier conflicts are repressed

Psychosexual stage GENITAL

Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty

Psychodynamic approach

explanatory power

Humanistic approach

An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each persons capacity for self determination

Free will

The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external factors

Self actualisation

The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil ones full potential

Hierarchy of needs

A five levelled hierarchical sequence in which basic needs must be satisfied before higher psychological needs can be achieved

Self

The ideas and values that characterise I and ME and includes perception and valuing of WHAT I AM and WHAT I CAN DO

Congruence

The aim of Rogerian therapy; when the self concept and ideal self are seen to broadly acckrd or match

Conditions of worth

When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children eg. I will only love you if ...

Nervous system

Consists of the CNS and the PNS

CNS

Consists of the brain and the spinal cord and is the origin of all complex commands and decisions

PNS

Sends information to the CNS and muscles from the outside world

Somatic nervous system

Transmits information from RECEPTOR cells to CNS

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Transmits information to and from internal bodily organs automatically. It subdivisions are parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system

Endocrine system

One of the body's major information systems that instructs glands to release hormones directly into the bloodstream

Gland

An organ in the body that synthesises substances such as hormones

Hormones

Chemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream and often affect target organs

Fight or flight response

The way an animal responds when stressed

Adrenaline

A hormone produced by the adrenal glands which is part of the humans immediate stress response system

Thyroid gland

Produces thyroxine

Pituitary gland

Called the 'master gland' located in the brain

Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)

After the threat has passed. Decreases heart rate & breathing rate, constructs pupils

Sympathetic nervous system (SNS)

Works in response to a threat. Inhibits saliva production and digestion, increases heart rate

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Sensory neurons

Carry messages from the PNS to CNS. They have long dendrites and short axons

Relay neurons

Connect sensory neurons to motor or other relay neurons. They have short dendrites and short axons.

Motor neurons

Connect CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands. They have short dendrites and long axons.

Cell body

Largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus and carry nerve impulses towards the cell body

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands. Covered in MYELIN SHEATH that protects the axons and speeds up transmission

Nodes of ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath which speed up transmission

Terminal buttons

The branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters. Next to the synapse

Synaptic transmission

The process by which neighbouring neurons communicate with each other by sending chemical messages across the gap

Neurotransmitter

Brain chemicals released from synaptic vesicles that relay signals across the synapse from one neuron to another

Excitation

When a neurotransmitter eg. Adrenaline, increases the positive charge

Inhibition

When a neurotransmitter eg. Serotonin, increases the negative charge, decreasing the likelihood that the neuron will fire

Localisation of function

The theory that different areas of the brain are responsible for different behaviours, processes or activities

Motor area

A region of the frontal lobe involved in regulating movement

Somatosensory area

An area of the parietal lobe that processes sensory information such as touch

Visual area

A part of the occipital lobe that receives and processes visual information

Auditory area

Located in the temporal lobe and concerned with the analysis of speech

Broca's area

An area of the frontal lobe in the left hemisphere responsible for speech production

Wernicke's area

An area of the temporal lobe in the left hemisphere responsible for language comprehension

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganising after damage or by building new pathways based on experience and new learning

Functional recovery

A form of plasticity. Following damage through trauma, the brain's ability to redistribute or transfer functions usually performed by a damaged area to other, undamaged areas.

Synaptic pruning

Where rarely used synaptic connections are deleted and frequently used connections are strengthened from infancy

Research unto plasticity

Maguire studied London taxi drivers and found a large volume of 'grey matter' in the hippocampus. They take 'the knowledge' to assess their knowledge of London streets. The longer they had been in the job, the more pronounced the structural difference (positive correlation)

Hemispheric lateralisation

The idea that the two halves of the brain are functionally different and that certain mental processes and behaviours are mainly controlled by one hemisphere rather than the other.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A method used to measure brain activity while a person is performing a task that uses MRI technology

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A record of tiny electrical impulses produced by the brains activity