AP Psych Unit 7

arousal theory

a theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

instinct

a complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry (ex. blood glucose) around a particular level

incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger

set point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight

basal metabolic rate

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure

sexual response cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

estrogens

sex hormones secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity

testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

androgens

male sex hormones secreted by the testes

affiliation

need the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group (belonging)

ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

approach-approach conflict

conflict occurring when a person must choose between two desirable goals

approach-avoidance conflict

conflict occurring when a person must choose or not choose a goal that has both positive and negative aspects

avoidance-avoidance conflict

conflict occurring when a person must choose between two undesirable goals

multiple approach-avoidance conflict

conflict in which one must choose between options that have both many attractive and many negative aspects

insulin

hormone secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose

lateral hypothalamus

the part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals

ventromedial hypothalamus

the part of the hypothalamus that produces feelings of fullness and causes one to stop eating

satiety

the state of being satisfactorily full and unable to take on more

leptin

hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used

ghrelin

hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain

orexin

hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder in which an irrational fear of weight gain leads people to starve themselves

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

binge eating disorder

significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa

flow

a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills

need

basic requirement for survival

drive

an aroused/motivated state that occurs because of a physiological need

cognitive dissonance

unpleasant mental experience of tension resulting from two conflicting thoughts or beliefs

self-perception

we form attitudes/beliefs that are consistent with our behavior

optimal arousal theory

a theory of motivation stating that people are motivated to behave in ways that maintain what is, for them, an optimal level of arousal

cognitive consistency theory

individuals seek to maintain consistency in their thoughts

emotion

a response of the whole organism, involving

(1) physiological arousal

(2) expressive behaviors

(3) conscious experience

feeling

an emotional state or reaction

James-Lange Theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

Cannon-Bard Theory

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

two-factor theory

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

appraisal theory

a theory of emotion that proposes that emotions are based on an individual's assessment of a situation or an outcome and its relevance to his or her goals (Lazarus)

mood

a temporary state of mind or feeling

facial feedback hypothesis

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

display rules

culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display

microexpressions

small, brief facial movements that signal emotional experiences, even in people who have been trained to hide their emotions

universal emotions

happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, disgust, anger (HSSFDA)

most people can readily ID these emotions simply by observing facial expressions

primary emotions

emotions that are expressed by people in all cultures (ex. joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust)

secondary emotions

emotions composed of combinations of primary emotions (ex. remorse, guilt, submission, and anticipation)

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

stress (stress reaction)

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

stressor

an event or situation that causes stress (ex. catastrophes, significant life changes, and daily hassles)

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system

a major neuroendocrine pathway relevant to the stress response involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and the adrenal cortex

catharsis

the idea that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

relative deprivation principle

the perception that we are happier if we can see that others are worse off (and vice versa)

adaptation-level phenomenon

tendency people have to quickly adapt to a new situation, until that situation becomes the norm (ex. something makes us happy, but then we need something even better to stay happy)

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

overjustification effect

the result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing

limbic system

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) associated with emotions and drives

type a

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

type b

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people

locus of control

a person's tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environment

coping methods

the behaviors, thinking, and emotional processes that a person uses to handle stress and continue to function

Paul Eckman

concluded facial expressions carry same meaning regardless of culture, context, or language (universal). Use of microexpressions to detect lying.

Abraham Maslow

humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"

Alfred Kinsey

his research described human sexual behavior and was controversial (for its methodology & findings)

self-actualization

one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential (Maslow)

unconditional positive regard

an attitude of total acceptance toward another person (Rogers)

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

genuineness

when people are genuine, they are open with their own feelings, drop their facades, and are transparent and self-disclosing (Rogers)

self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

self-efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness

incongruence

the degree of disparity between one's self-concept and one's actual experience

Carl Rogers

humanistic who founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person

arousal

an increase in reactivity or wakefulness that primes us for some kind of action

projective test

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics (psychoanalytic)

Roschach inkblot test

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Roschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score

self-report inventories

personality tests that ask individuals to answer a series of questions about their characteristic behavior

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes

personality inventory (MMPI)

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

Minnesota Twin Study

has found impressive similarities in personality between people who have the same genetic make up

Barnum effect (Forer effect)

the tendency to accept certain information as true, such as character assessments or descriptions, even when the information is so vague as to be worthless

Carl Jung

neo-Freudian who created concept of "collective unconscious" and wrote books on dream interpretation

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware

fixation

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. Operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification