Fundamentals Set 2 Revision

114Q

conditioned stimulus

a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place

conditioned response

A response that is learned (elicited through a conditioned stimulus). Is similar to the original unconditioned response that is used to create a conditioned stimulus

operant response

a response that operates on the environment to produce certain consequences

unconditioned response

an unlearned response to a stimulus

primary reinforcer

stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

fixed interval reinforcement

schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same

variable-interval reinforcement

schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event

variable ration reinforcement

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

learned helplessness

the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past

elaboration

a long term memory process which involves changing or adding to material or making associations to make remembering easier

maintenance rehearsal

the straight repeating of information in order to memorise it

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list better than words at the end

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list rather than the start

selective attention

the process that allows an individual to select and focus on particular input for further processing while simultaneously suppressing irrelevant or distracting information

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units

7 +/- 2 (memory)

most adults can only remember between 5 and 9 items in short term memory - known as Millers Law

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

encoding specificity principle

matching encoding contexts at recall assists in the retrieval of episodic memories. eg happy memories are easier to recall when happy

context specific memory

memories that are helped or hindered by similarities or differences between the contexts in which they are learned and recalled

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

proactive inhibition

Decreased ability to learn new information, caused by interference from existing knowledge.

retroactive inhibition

decreased ability to recall previously learned information, caused by learning of new information

Hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories following a traumatic event

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past - might be limited to memories from specific events that the victim might psychologically want to forget

formal concepts

an idea or category defined by a concrete or specific set of rules, guidelines or properties

prototypes

example of cognitive representation of something within a certain category. Prototypes are used to enhance memory and recall.

premises

a proposition forming part of a larger concept

propositions

the smallest units of knowledge that can be either true or false

anchoring heuristic

a mental shortcut that involves basing judgements on existing information - rely on the first piece of information received - is the anchor and sets the tone for everything that follows

availability heuristic

describes our tendency to use information that comes to mind quickly and easily when making decisions about the future

representativeness heuristic

involves estimating the likelihood of an event by comparing it to an existing prototype that already exists in our minds

phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit - there are 44 in the English language.

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) - the root of the word is also considered in this

semantics

Meaning of words and sentences

syntax

the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language - sentence structure

deep structure

the meaning of a sentence

surface structure

how a sentence is worded

calculating IQ

mental age/chronological age x 100

Fixed and inherited IQ

psychologists believed that intelligence was fixed and inherited. Characteristics were passed on from parents

statistical validity

the extent to which conclusions drawn from a statistical test are accurate and reliable. To achieve validity must have an adequate sample size.

statistical reliability

the degree to which test results or other research evidence occurs repeatedly

norms

statistics that describe the test performance of a well defined population

test-retest reliability

a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions

alternative forms reliability

an approach for assessing reliability that requires two equivalent forms of the scale to be constructed, and then measures the same respondents at two different times using the alternate forms

split-half reliability

a statistical method used to measure the consistency of the scores of a test

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

social psychology

the scientific study of how individuals or group behaviour is influenced by the presence and behaviour of others

ego

part of the personality that helps us deal with reality, mediating between the demands of the ID and the Superego and the environment. The ego prevents us from acting on every urge that we have

Id

the little devil sitting on your shoulder, tries to get you to do the things that feel good even if they are wrong. the part of the human personality made up of inborn biological urges that seek out immediate gratification, guided by the pleasure principle.

superego

acts as our moral guide and mediates between the id and the ego. it contains the conscience which makes us feel guilty for doing something wrong and good when doing something right.

reality principle

the ego manages to satisfy the id without engaging in all sorts of inappropriate acts.

ego defense mechanisms

according to psychoanalytic theory, strategies developed by the ego to control unacceptable id impulses and to avoid or reduce the anxiety they arouse

personality type

a style of personality defined by a group of related traits

personality traits

identifiable characteristics that define a person

central traits

refers to genetic characteristics that form the foundation or most descriptive trait. Characteristics such as honest, kind, intelligent, hard working

secondary traits

refers to physical and mental traits that develop as a result of puberty

neuroticism

degree of emotional instability or stability

congruence

Agreement, harmony, or correspondence, Made up of real self, perceived self, and ideal self

agreeableness

A personality dimension that describes someone who is good natured, cooperative, and trusting.

Conscientiousness

A personality dimension that describes someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized

Openness

one of the five factors; willingness to try new things and be open to new experiences

extroversion

A personality trait shared by people who are friendly, assertive, and outgoing with others

OCEAN

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

social cognitive theory

learning of behaviours through observation, modelling and motivation such as positive reinforcement.

reciprocal determinism

Bandura's idea that though our environment affects us, we also affect our environment

humanistic theory

An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the entirety of life rather than individual components of behavior and focuses on human dignity, individual choice, and self-worth

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

tabula rasa

John Locke's concept of the mind as a blank sheet ultimately bombarded by sense impressions that, aided by human reasoning, formulate ideas.

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

object permanence

the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight

Lev Vygotsky's Theory

Wrote that biological development and cultural experience both influenced children's ability to learn. Believed social contact was essential to cognitive development - socio cultural theory

Graphing Variables

independent on the x-axis and dependent on the y - axis

independent variable

the experimental factor that is the one being tested to see if they are the cause

dependent variable

a variable (often denoted by y ) whose value depends on that of another - the properties change when the independent variable changes

error bars

Graphical representation of the variability of data

confidence interval

a range of values so defined that there is a specified probability that the value of a parameter lies within it.

Psychosocial Stages of Development

To Erikson, eight successive stages encompassing the life span. At each stage, we must cope with a crisis in either an adaptive or a maladaptive way.

Trust v. Mistrust

Refers to a stage of development from birth to approximately 18 months of age, during which infants gain trust of their parents or caregivers if their world is planned, organized, and routine.

Autonomy v Shame

Erikson's 2nd stage of social development; toddlers seek to exercise their will and do things for
themselves

initiative v guilt

age 3 to 5, preschooler - learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent

Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's stage between 6 and 11 years, when the child learns to be productive and compares self with others. Can consider himself inferior to others

identity v role confusion

5th stage in Erikson's model; adolescents must develop a sense of identity or suffer lack of direction

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Erikson's stage in which individuals form deeply personal relationships, marry, begin families

Generativity v. Stagnation

7th stage in Erikson's model; in middle age, adults must discover a sense of contributing to the world or they may feel a lack of purpose

integrity vs despair

Erikson's final stage in which those near the end of life look back and evaluate their lives

Empathetic cooperation

the ability to sense the state of another person

universal ethical principles

Kohlberg's term for concepts such as justice and honor

preconventional morality

first level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior. Child will not take candy for fear of being punished

conventional morality

second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior

postconventional morality

third level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the person's behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual and that may be in disagreement with accepted social norms

self regulation

the exercise of voluntary control over the self to bring the self into line with preferred standards

internal attribution

when a person uses a personal reason as the cause for a situation or event instead of an external or environmental attribution

external attribution

attributing the cause of a person's behavior to an external event or situation in the environment