human memory by analogy to external memory systems
plato: memory as wax tablet more recently: tape recording/writing currently: computer
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encoding
coding and putting information into memory
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storage
maintaining information in memory over time
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retrieval
recovering information from memory
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levels of processing theory
Craik and Tulving attention is critical to encoding memories deeper levels of processing=longer lasting memories
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processing levels
shallow (visual) phonemic/sound deep (semantic)
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semantic encoding
deep and has meaning
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visual imagery encoding
getting information into memory by changing it to mental pictures
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organizational encoding
several pieces of information into memory by categorizing them according to their relationships
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implications of encoding content for good study skills
avoid superficial processing: rereading/underlining engage in deep processing: personal relevance/relate
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sensory memory: types? capacity and duration?
visual and auditiory capacity: fairly large duration: visual (250ms) auditory (4 sec)
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short-term memory: capacity and duration?
capacity: limited duration: unrehearsed information for several seconds
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long-term memory: capacity and duration?
capacity: unlimited duration: very long (few minutes or years)
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capacity of short term memory: magic number and chunking
magic number: 7 +/- 2 chunk: a meaningful group of information
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interaction of short term and long term memory
we encode and organize information in short term memory in terms of what we know in long term memory
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transferring information into long term memory
the result of processing transfers through rehearsal
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serial position effect
better memory for items at the beginning and end of a list
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primacy effect
first items in the list remembered (long term memory storage)
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recency effect
last items in the list remembered (short term memory storage)
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what is long term memory?
composed of explicit and implicit memories, theoretically unlimited
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explicit memory
intentionally retrieving past experiences; semantic and episodic
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semantic memory
memory for facts
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episodic memory
memory for experiences
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implicit memory
the influence of past experience on behavior and performance without conscious recollection; procedural and priming
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procedural memory
memory that allows you to do things
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priming
an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus because of recent exposure to it
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support for distinction between explicit and implicit memory
anterograde amnesia: explicit memory is impaired and implicit memory is similar to normal
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Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve
rapid forgetting in the beginning, forgetting slows down after a while
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forgetting due to decay
forgetting occurs simply due to the passage of time
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forgetting due to interference
forgetting is due to the presence of other information interfering with retrieval or storage
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proactive interference
previous memories interfering with retrieval of new ones
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retroactive interference
recent memories interfering with retrieval of old ones
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what is a retrieval cue?
a stimulus for remembering
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false memory
an inaccurate memory that feels as real as an accurate memory
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schema
something in common to all members of a category
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memory misattribution
assigning a recollection or idea to the wrong source
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suggestibility
the development of biased memories from misleading information
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implications of constructive nature of memory
police interviewers; share all details first then ask questions after
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what is learning?
a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior as a result of experience
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classical conditioning
the pairing of two stimulus
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operant conditioning
the pairing of a response and a consequence
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acquisition
when conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are repeatedly paired the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus
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extinction
decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus
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spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of the conditioned response after extinction without further pairings of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus
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generalization
when a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus also evokes a conditioned response
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discrimination
the ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that are irrelevant
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role of cognitive processes in classical conditioning
learning the predictability of the second event (conditioned stimulus predicts the unconditioned stimulus); more predictable=stronger conditioned response
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role of biological predispositions in classical conditioning
biologically prepared to learn some associations more easily than others
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Thorndike's law of effect
responses followed by a pleasant outcome increase in occurrence and those followed by an unpleasant outcome will decrease in occurrence
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positive reinforcement
adding something desirable
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positive punishment
adding something aversive
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negative reinforcement
removing something aversive
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negative punishment
removing something desired
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shaping
slowly reaching the desired behavior by reinforcing small steps toward the behavior
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fixed ratio
reinforce behavior after a set number of responses
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variable ratio
reinforce behavior after an unpredictable number of responses
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fixed interval
reinforce the first response after a fixed time interval
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variable interval
reinforce the first response after a varying time interval
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different response rates for different partial reinforcement schedules
ratio schedules result in higher response rates variable schedules result in steadier response rates continuous reinforcement=more prone to extinction
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observational learning
learning by observing others; also called social learning
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what is problem solving?
the analysis and transformation of information to achieve a goal
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process of problem solving
represent the problem try to plan potential solutions evaluate/select a solution try to execute solution and evaluate results
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represent the problem
initial representation goal state operators intermediate problem states
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initial representation
represents given or starting conditions
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goal state
represents final or goal situation
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operators
moves made from one state to another
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intermediate problem states
states generated by applying operators
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solution approaches
trial and error analogies algorithms heuristics difficulty
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mental set
tendency to approach a problem type in a particular way, even if it is not the best current approach
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functional fixedness
the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use
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failure, what to do if you get stuck?
try to reformulate problem or try to plan potential solution
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expertise and problem solving
expertise is domain specific comes with experience
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some aspects of expertise
chunking, planning, recognizing analogies
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availability heuristic
estimate the probability of an event based on how easy it is to think of relevant cases
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implications of availability heuristic
we underestimate the frequency of hard to remember events and overestimate the frequency of easy to remember events
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conjunction fallacy
the co-occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one.
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representative heuristic
estimate the probability of an event based on how well the event represents what we think is typical
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2 errors of representative heuristics
gambler's fallacy and ignoring base rates
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gambler's fallacy
odds of an event happening increase if they haven't occurred recently
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ignoring base rates
we often fail to consider how often things usually happen; especially when we apply them to ourselves
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framing effects in decision making
how a problem is framed affects how we respond to it
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how framing as gains or losses tends to affect decision
when we seek gains we avoid risks when we cut losses we choose risks
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sunk-cost fallacy
we are reluctant to waste something we have paid for
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what is intelligence?
verbal ability, social competence, and practical problem solving
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is intelligence one or many things?
there is general capacity or "g" factor and there are also different types (both views are correct)
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eugenics movement (late 1800s)
efforts to control reproduction to gradually improve hereditary characteristics
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US immigration and test bias (early 1900s)
U.S. classified many Eastern-Europeans as "feeble-minded"
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Binet - practical, educational use
looked for tasks that emphasized differences in ability to reason and solve problems
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Ratio IQ
mental age/chronological age x 100
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current meaning of intelligence scores
deviation IQ; a relative standing within age group
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Stanford-Binet
the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test
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WISC
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
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WAIS
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
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nature, nurture, and intelligence
evidence for both environmental and genetic influences
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evidence for genetic influences
identical twins raised separate
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evidence for environmental influences
nonidentical twins raised together
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reaction range
the idea that heredity sets limits on intelligence and environmental factors determine where an individual lands within those limits
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group differences in intelligence? what causes them?
stereotype threat biases in testing environment
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stereotype threat
the general idea that race effects the scores on intelligence tests
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