A&P Lecture Exam 1

examining the structure of the human body:

inspection

palpation

auscultation

percussion

inspection

looking at the body’s appearance

palpation

feeling a structure with the hands

auscultation

listening to the natural body signs

percussion

rebound; taps, feels, and listens

cadaver dissection

cutting and separating human body tissues to reveal tissue relationships

comparative anatomy

study of multiple species to learn about form, function, and evolution

neurophysiology

physiology of nervous system

endocrinolgy

physiology of hormones

pathophysiology

mechanisms of disease

comparative physiology

study of different species to learn about body functions; the basis for our understanding of human physiology and the development of new drugs and medical procedures

exploratory surgery

medical imaging; viewing the body without surgery

gross anatomy

study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye.

histology (microscopic anatomy)

examination of tissues with microscope

histopathology

microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease

cytology

study of structure and function of cells

ultrastructure

view detail under electron microscope

the hierarchy of complexity

organism composed of organ system, organ system composed of organs, organs composed of tissues, tissues composed of cells, cells composed of organelles, organelles composed of molecules, molecules composed of atoms.

the body’s structural hierarchy

organism, organ system, organ, tissue, cell, organelle, macromolecule, molecule, atom

holism

“emergent properties”; humans are more than the sum of their parts

reductionism

large, complex systems can be understood by studying their simpler components; essential to scientific thinking

anatomical variation

no two humans are exactly alike!

situs inversus

left-right reversal of organ placement

viruses are _ living and _ cellular.

not; not

8 characteristics of life

organization

cellular composition

metabolism

responsiveness

movement

homeostasis

development

reproduction

evolution

organization

living things exhibit a higher level of organization than nonliving things

cellular composition

living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells.

metabolism

internal chemical reactions

responsiveness

ability to sense and react to stimuli (irritability or excitability)

movement

movement of organism or substances within the organism

homeostasis

maintaining relatively stable internal conditions

development

differentiation and growth

reproduction

producing copies of themselves; passing genes to offspring

evolution

changes in genes

physiological variation

sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity, genetics, and environment

homeostasis is the ability to

detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions

loss of homeostatic control causes

illness or death

negative feedback allows for

dynamic equilibrium within a limited range around a set point.

skin cancer

\-mostly caused by UV ray exposure.

\-most often to head, neck, and hands.

\-fair skinned and elderly.

\-easily treated.

\-highest survival= treated and detected early.

malignant melanoma

\-arises from melanocytes!

\-less than 5% of skin cancer

\-can be successfully removed if caught early, but usually fatal if it metastasizes

\-familial history

\-highest incidence in men, redheads, severe sunburns.

squamous cell carcinoma

\-arises from keratinocytes!

\-lesions usually on scalp, ears, lower lip, or back of hand.

\-raised, red and scaly, forms concave ulcer.

\-tends to metastasize to lymph nodes

\-may become lethal

\-chance of recovery good with early detection and removal.

basal cell carcinoma

\-most common type

\-least dangerous because it seldom metastasizes

\-forms from cells in stratum basale

\-small shiny bump with central depression and beaded edges

unicellular glands

\-found in epithelium that is predominantly non-secretory

\-can be endocrine or exocrine

\-ex is goblet cells

holocrine secretion

cells accumulate a product until they disintegrate (oil glands of scalp and skin)

apocrine secretion

lipid droplet covered by membrane and cytoplasm buds from cell surface (milk fat)

eccrine secretion

uses vesicles that release their secretion by exocytosis

endocrine gland

\-a ==ductless== gland that secretes hormones into the bloodstream

\-ex: thyroid; adrenal

exocrine gland

\-gland that secretes its products into another organ or onto the body surface usually by way of a duct

ex: salivary

cutaneous transpiration

\-water loss from skin due to NOT sweating

\-water diffuses between the keratinocytes and evaporates

covalent bonds

atoms share 1 or more pairs of electrons

single covalent bond

sharing of 1 electron pair.

double covalent bond

the sharing of 2 pairs of electrons.

nonpolar covalent bond

shared electrons spend ==EQUAL== time around each nucleus; the ==STRONGEST of all chemical bonds==.

polar covalent bond

spend more time orbiting one nucleus than they do the other; lend negative charge to the region where they spend the most time; ==UNEQUAL==; spend more time ==NEAR OXYGEN==

hydrogen bonds

a weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom in one molecule and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen atom in another.

large molecules (DNA+Proteins) are shaped in part by the formation of hydrogen bonds within them.

how are hydrogen bonds important to physiology?

water molecules are attracted to each other by hydrogen bonds

van der Waals forces

weak brief attractions between neutral atoms; only 1% as strong as a covalent bond

how are van der Waals forces important to physiology?

important in protein folding; fluctuation in electron density within an atom creates polarity for a moment, and attracts adjacent atom for a very short time.

what do chemical bonds do?

hold atoms together within a molecule, or attract molecule to another

What are the properties that account for water's ability to support life?

solvency

cohesion/adhesion

chemical reactivity

thermal stability

hydrophilic

dissolve in water (polarized-charged)

hydrophobic

do not dissolve in water (nonpolar neutral)

solvency

the ability to dissolve other chemicals; universal solvent is water

adhesion

opposite- tendency of one substance to cling to another substance; water adheres to large membranes reducing friction around organs

cohesion

same- tendency of like molecules of the same substance to cling to each other; surfaces film on surface of water is due to molecules being held together by surface tension; water is very cohesive due to its hydrogen bonds

what is heat capacity?

amount of heat needed to raise the temp of 1g of a substance by 1 degree C

buffers

chemical solutions that resist changes in pH

acid

any proton donor, a molecule that releases a proton (H+) in water

base

a proton acceptor, accepts H+ ions or releases OH- ions

physiology

study of function

comparative physiology

study of different species to learn about body functions; the basis for much of our understanding of human physiology and the development of new drugs and medical procedures.

functions of the skin

\-resistance to trauma + infection

\-other barrier functions

\-vitamin d synthesis

\-sensation

\-thermoregulation

\-nonverbal communication

pathophysiology

mechanisms of disease

endocrinology

physiology of hormones

neurophysiology

physiology of nervous system

Evolution

all living species exhibit GENETIC CHANGE from generation to generation and therefore evolve.

\-occurs because mutations

\-seen only in population as a whole

what are the major elements of life?

carbon

hydrogen

oxygen

nitrogen

phosphorus

calcium

ionic bonds

attraction of a cation to an anion. easily broken by water

dermal papillae

UPWARD, finger-like extensions of dermis

Epidermal Ridges

DOWNWARD waves of epidermis

kinetic energy

energy of motion; doing work

free energy

potential energy available in a system to do useful work

energy

capacity to do work

chemical energy

potential energy in molecular bonds

reductionism

large, complex systems can be understood by studying their SIMPLER components; essential to scientific thinking

antioxidants

chemicals that neutralize free radicals

free radicals

short-lived particles with an unusual \# of electrons; trigger reactions that destroy molecules

electrolytes

substances that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting electric current; important for chemical reactivity; excitability of nerve + muscle

Potential energy

more a position

\-make ATP

\-ex: rollercoaster

\-energy stored in an object, but not currently doing work

heat energy

kinetic energy of molecular motion; generated by our bodies due to cells constantly moving

deductive method

begins with asking a question and forming HYPOTHESIS

inductive method

by BACON- process of making numerous observations until one feels confident in drawing predictions

cell theory

schwann, schleiden- all functions of the body are interpreted effects of cellular activity; all organisms composed of cells

gap junctions

formed by ring-like connexons (in intercalated cardiac muscle!!)

\-ions, nutrients, and other small solutes pass between cells

\-located in cardiac + smooth muscle, embryonic tissue, lens, cornea

tight junctions

zipper-like, interlocking linkage between two adjacent cells by tansmembrane cell adhesion proteins. seals off space

desmosome

patch that holds cells together (like a clothing snap)

keeps from pulling apart

hemidesmosome

half desmosome that anchors basal cells to underlying basement membrane

regeneration

replacement of dead or damaged cells by the same type of cell as before

fibrosis

replacement of damaged cells with scar tissue

tissue death

apoptosis - programmed cell death

necrosis- tissue death due to toxins, trauma, infections

infarction- sudden death of tissue

gangrene- tissue necrosis due to insufficient blood supply