women / classics

Why was "woman" created according to Ancient Greeks and how was life before them?

They believed that men experienced old age, suffering and death because of women. They were created to punish the mankind for receiving the stolen gift of fire.

Who was Pandora?

First woman. Zeus' plan to punish mankind. Something they would welcome but will lead to their destruction.

How did Hephaestos contribute to Pandora?

Mixed earth and water and created her alike immortal goddeses, which gave her a divine beauty.

How did Athena contribute to Pandora?

Taught her various crafts; also clothed and styled her.

How did Aphrodite contribute to Pandora?

Hesiod's account says "sprinkled charm about her face", which means she made her desireable for men and physically attractive.

How did Pandora spread the evil?

She brought a pithos (jar) with her, in which were all the evils that plague mankind. She opened the jar as soon as she reached the earth. Only hope remained in the jar, which was Zeus' will.

How do different tales of Pandora vary?

Some versions say she had a pyxis (box). Another later addition to this myth is the detail that Pandora was given the box but forbidden to open it, although eventually her curiosity was too great and she opened the lid to see what was inside, unleashing the evils by mistake. This version portrays a Pandora who is more complex, curious, disobedient and lacking self-control.

How does Hesiod describe the inherent evil of women in Theogony?

- "deadly race and tribe"

- "Zeus made women to be evil and with a nature to do evil."

- "whoever avoids marriage and the sorrows that women cause, reaches deadly old age without anyone to tend his years."

Why did the gods punish mankind?

Prometheus, who sided with the gods during Titanomachy, played a trick on Zeus so mankind could keep the better parts of the sacrifice. Zeus was angry and hid the fire so men could not cook their food. Prometheus secretly stole a spark of Zeus' fire from the Olympus and brought it down to earth; as a result, Zeus sent Pandora to punish the mankind.

Who was Helen?

Daughter of Zeus and the mortal woman Leda (wife of Tyndareus, King of Sparta). She was renowned for being a princess, a demi-god and the most beautiful woman in the world.

Who did Helen choose to be her husband?

Menelaus, a prince of Mycenae. The pair continued to live in Sparta and had a daughter, Hermione.

What is the story of Paris' judgement?

Eris, who was the only goddess not invited to the wedding of mortal Peleus and sea nymph Thetis, decided to wreck the wedding and threw a golden apple with "to the fairest" written on it among the guests. All three godesses claimed the apple and Zeus (who did not want to judge) ordered them to find an honest mortal instead. They chose Paris, a Trojan prince.

What was the offer of Athena to Paris?

Victory in war

What was the offer of Hera to Paris?

Power

What was the offer of Aphrodite to Paris?

Love of the most beautiful woman in the world.

Whose offer did Paris accept?

Paris was most tempted by Aphrodite's offer and awarded her the golden apple.

What does the story of Paris suggest about "beauty" ?

Although this may have shown the importance of physical beauty in the Ancient World, which may have been valued more than power and glory, this is likely to be a false conclusion since Paris is often criticised for being shallow and superficial.

How do different versions of Helen's tale vary?

Some of them say she was blinded by her new love and voluntarily escaped with Paris to Troy; by being unfaithful to Menelaus she brought ultimate shame upon herself. However there are competing versions in which Helen was either overcome by the irresistable power of Aphrodite or carried off by force which presents her as a victim.

How is Euripides' version of the story different?

He writes that Hera, angry with Paris, created a phantom of Helen for him to take back to Troy. The real helen was whisked away to Egypt. Therefore this version present Helen as neither villain nor victim, but a pawn in a game played by the gods.

What did Menelaus do after Paris took Helen?

He assembled the greatest force of Greek soldiers that the world have ever known to set out for Troy to retrieve his wife.

What may have been 3 additional reasons for the war?

* Because Paris took Helen when he was a guest at Menelaus' home, this was a serious breach of xenia (hospitality ethos, whose breach was blasphemous as it was overseen by Zeus)
* Ancient poet Semonides suggested Helen was sent to earth by her father Zeus to trigger a war that would reduce the number of people on the world which was overpopulated.
* Modern interpretations suggests Helen just helped them to justify a war for money and power.

How does Homer portray Helen in The Iliad?

At the start of the scene, she is weaving which suggests virtue.

Trojan elders are impressed by her beauty but wish that she would leave as she brought war and destruction for both sides.

Story shows she came to regret her decision.

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She regrets her decision but mostly blames gods and fate for what happened.

She misses her husband, child and friends.

How does Priam's speech differ from the elders?

He emphatises with Helen, as her father in law and gods are to blame.

What was the problem of the Roman Kingdom when it was first established?

Romulus grew the city by inviting refugees who were mainly men. Therefore they had a shortage of woman which could make them the last generation of Romans.

What did Romulus initially tried to do?

He tried to convince neighbouring kingdoms to encourage marriages between different citizens. However they did not welcome the idea since Rome was a new and untested kingdom.

What did Romulus do after his offer was refused (according to Livy's account)?

He sent invitations to neighbouring towns to attend a festival, which a large number of Sabines accepted. Before the formal part of the festival started, he gave a signal and Roman men started to seize and carry off the Sabine women. Particularly beautiful maidens were marked out for the patrician Romans.

How did Sabine women reacted? How did Romulus tried to soothe their anger?

They were outraged and claimed the bond between Romans and Sabines were broken.

Romulus blamed their parents' arrogance and granted them the privilages of Roman Citizenship.

How did their new husbands treated the Sabine women?

They spoke loving words to them and justified their deed with love and longing. They thought appealing to vanity was the most effective way of winning over a woman's hearth.

Who was Tarpeia?

Daughter of the general Spuirius Tarpeius. Whilst she was outside the city collecting water for a religious ritual, Sabine King Tatius managed to bribe him to gave his men entry to the city.

Why did the Sabine soldiers killed Tarpeia after entering the city?

She asked for what they had on their arms (Sabine soldiers used to wear gold bracelets and jewelled rings) but rather than giving all the jewellery to her, they crushed her to death with their shields after they no longer required her service.

How does Livy's story of Tarpeia differ?

He says when she asked for what they had in their hands, she meant the shields; which means she could be viewed not as treator but as a heroine. Since she saw they were planning to invade in all circumstances, she wanted them to be as weak as possible.

How were the Roman attitudes towards Tarpeia?

She was seen as a traitor. The cliff from which Roman traitors were thrown to their deaths was known as "Tarpeian Rock".

How did the Sabine-Roman war end?

Sabine (now Roman) women made their way to the centre of the fighting and pleaded with their husbands and fathers to stop fighting. Their appeal worked. War ended and Sabines joined the Roman Kingdom.

Why was the female intervention in the battle significant?

It demonstrated the influence of women in government and their male relatives. It also shows the vital rolewomen played in politics through marriage.

Who was Lucretia?

Patrician woman married to Collatinus, son of a respected general and a distant relative of the current king Tarquinius Priscus.

What happened between Collatinus and the king's sons?

They were arguing about which one of their wives was the most virtious. To settle the matter, Collatinus suggested they should pay a surprise visit to each of them.

What did they see in their surprise visit?

King's daughters-in-law were spotted at a stumptuous banquet, passing time with their peers. Lucretia on the other hand was completely occupied by her spinning even though it was late at night. Therefore the winner was Lucretia.

What did Sextus Tarquinius Superbus do?

He was one of the sons of the king, and was impressed by the beauty and virtue of Lucretia. While her husband Collatinus was away, he returned to their house alone and waited until everyone was asleep. Then he took his knife and went to sleep with Lucretia. He first threatened her with death, but she continued resisting. Then he threatened with accusing her of adultery with her servant. She stopped resisting.

What did Lucretia do after Tarquinius left?

She sent messengers to her husband, asking them to come immediately. She explained what happened and commited suicide with a knife.

How what Lucretia did shows pudicitia?

She only stopped resisting when Tarquinius threatened her with adultery accusations and commited suicide after explaining what happened. Therefore we can conclude that she valued her reputation and fidelity to her husband more than she valued her life.

What were the consequence of Lucretia's death?

Collatinus took the body to The Forum and called all men to raise an army against the king. When the king became aware of the uprising, he immediately gathered his family and escaped into exile. As a result, Kingdom was fallen and the new Roman Republic was established.

What does Livy emphasise in his story of Lucretia?

That the law said she was officially innocent of any wrongdoing since her husband and father believed so as she did not consent. This is significant as it shows she was not required to suicide, but she had chosen to do so by herself.

Why did some Romans believed Lucretia had shown some masculine characteristics?

- Poet Ovid called her a "matrona with manly spirit"

- Public speaker Valerius Maximus called her a "leader" but the Latin word for this (dux) was usually used to describe men.

- Women in ancient world used to suicide by hanging or poison. Using a sword or a knife and dying a bloody death was usually what men did.

Why is the story of Lucretia significant in terms of politics?

It led to establishment of Republic. Therefore it demonstrates female influence.

Why was exposure so common for newborn girls in Ancient Greece?

- Raising a girl was a greater strain on the family's resources as they could not work like boys.

- They could not inherit family wealth.

- They needed to give an expensive dowry to their kyrios when they marry.

How was the education of girls in Ancient Greece?

Athens did not have a state education system. Families usually arranged tutors of literacy, numeracy, music etc. for boys but young girls were usually educated at home by their mothers. They learned skills which would make them a good kyria. (spinning wool, weaving, cookery, managing household finances and slaves.)

What does Menander's words suggest about the Athenian attitudes towards female education?

- "A man who teaches a woman to write should recognize he is providing poison to an asp."

This implies most men were not in favour of the education of girls, as a result most of them did not know how to read and write. However Menander was a comic playwright which means these words may be satire therefore not representative.

How was the matchmaking of the kyria?

As the girl reached puberty, her father would select an appropiate groom. There was no room for romance and marriages were handled like a business deal and the primary concern was whether the relationship was beneficial for both families.

What was the significance of the dowry?

- A father (kyrios) who could not offer a dowry would have difficulties arranging the marriage.

- It is probable that it was intended to compensate the groom's family for the expense of providing for the bride.

- It helped protect the bride. If a husband wanted to divorce his wife, he needed to pay back the dowry.

Day 1 of Athenian wedding ceremony

Bride is joined by her female relatives and friends. The bride makes the sacrifice (of a lock of hair or toys) to the goddess of childhood and virginity, Artemis; to thank her for the protection during her childhood.

Day 2 of Athenian wedding ceremony

Ritual bath for the bride to purify and enhance fertility; followed by a wedding feast for both families which is also one of the few occasions where a woman can attend drinking parties. The groom drags the bride from her parents to his cart and drive away to his house. Cart was burnt after arrival to symbolise she cannot turn back. Finally, the couple would retire to their bedroom and spend the night together, whike their friends would stand guard, singing songs and banging on the door. This may have been to prevent evil spirits cursing the marriage.

Day 3 of Athenian wedding ceremony

Bride's female attendants would still be outside the room with some of the male guests. The celebrants would sing wedding songs and bride would be given gifts by the family members of her new family.

What was the primary objective of the Spartans and the Spartan State?

To produce elite soldiers that would enable Sparta to achieve and maintain its total military dominance.

How was the upbringing of Spartan girls effected by Spartan ethos?

Laws and customs regarding the upbringing and education of the girls were intended to help them bear healthy children who will be strong fighters.

How was exposure of babies in Sparta and why is it significant?

In Sparta, it seems there was no preference for raising boys over girls. Spartan elders, who held the right and responsibility to decide whether a baby was to be exposed, did so depending on the babies' health or perceived health. This is important as it shows Spartan elders, all of whom would have been men, valued the contribution women made to Sparta.

Why Sparta became a military state?

Spartans was outnumbered by the slave class in the society. After they enslaved Messanians following the conquest of their land, all slaves rose up against their Spartan masters. Spartans managed to reestablish their authority after a 17 year war however it cost them too much. This catastrophe caused radical changes in Spartan organisation which are often attributed to Lycurgus.

How does Xenophon criticise Athenian customs in *Constitution of the Spartans*?

"Other Greeks think girls are ought to sit alone doing their wool working... How, then, can they expect that girls raised like this will bear strong children?"

Who was the first woman to win an Ancient Olympic game?

A Spartan called "Cynisca". This is a clear evidence that the Spartans valued physical prowess in their women.

How was Spartan matchmaking?

Men and women would have plenty of opportunities to interact. Boys and girls would have exercised in full view of each other and the girls were actively encouraged to heckle the boys; mock who were lazy and praise who excelled his training. The effect of parents in matchmaking is unclear yet it is unlikely that the bride and groom would not know each other.

What are the key differences between Athenian and Spartan marriage?

- Spartan marriage did not have a dowry, since the only aim was to produce strong children.

- Athenian girls married around the age of 14 whereas this number was higher for Spartans (around 20). This is because the chance of surviving the childbirth was better and older girls were believed to be able to bear stronger children.

How was the Spartan wedding ceremony?

On her wedding night, the bride would have her *hair cut short* and *wear man's clothes* and sandals. She would wait for her husband on the floor of her bedroom. The husband, who would meanwhile had a dinner in his syssition (communal mess hall in which Spartan soldiers dined) and have gone to bed in his military barracks. At some point that night, the groom would sneak out of his barracks, trying to avoid being caught. He would go home, carry the bride to her bed and they would consummate the marriage. Before morning, the husband would return to his barracks.

What does the Spartan marriage customs suggest? What are their significances?

- One suggestion is that, by sneaking around, the couple would be more excited to see each other and their sex would be more energetic.

- Another suggestion is that this prevented couples spending too much time together; it ensured that a Spartan man's first allegiance was to his comrades and country. Men did not move out of their barracks until they reached the age of 30 and retired from the army.

- The fact that the bride cut her hair and wore man's clothes suggests even in marriage, there was no place for any femininity.

How was the exposure of babies in Ancient Rome?

When a baby was born, the midwife would check for any physical deformities and then leave it at the paterfamilias' feet. If he picked it up and lifted into the air, then it had been formally accepted into the family. If he did not, the baby would be given to the family slaves or the midwife to expose. It is not entirely certain how often Romans exposed their newborn children.

How was the naming ceremony of a child?

Naming ceremonies were held on the eighth day of a child. Girls were called a feminine version of their father's clan name. During the naming ceremony, the family would make offerings to the gods in their home and give a party for friends and relatives. The baby would be given gifts, including a bulla to ward of evil spirits. The bulla would be worn until the child becomes an adult; for girls, this was their wedding day.

How was the education of young girls in Rome?

There was no state education in Rome therefore families needed to arrange the education by themselves. Poor families were unlikely to be able to afford any education at all, whereas it was usual for girls of wealthy families to be taught reading, writing and arithmetic from a teacher known as litterator. They could also send a slave (usually Greek) to assist with the lessons and report back to the paterfamilias on the child's progress.

For families which could only afford one child to be educated, boys were favoured over girls.

REFERENCE: Sappho Fresco

Fresco of an upper-class Pompeian woman, who holds wax tablets and stylus. The writing tools she has suggests she was educated. The fresco was found in a large villa, and the woman seems to be wearing golden jewellery, which both suggests she was wealthy.

REFERENCE: Maesia

Advanced subjects like history, geometry, music, philosophy, law and rhetoric were usually only taught to boys. However, there were several women who accomplished in these skills. For example, Maesia, who was famous for successfully defending herself in the law courts. She was found not guilty by a huge majority of the votes, so she must have been an impressive speaker.

However, Maesia was nicknamed "Androgyne" because she was thought to have a spirit of a man, therefore she may have been an exception.

How was matchmaking in Rome?

Similar to Athens. Marriages were not based on love. Paterfamilias would select appropriate matches for the unmarried woman under his control. The main criterion was to strengthen financial and political relationships.

How does Catullus show women's lack of decision over their marriage?

"Your virginity is not wholly yours, part is your parents: a third your father's and a third your mother's."

Could women reject their fiancé?

Only if her father had chosen a man who was bad of character or unworthy. For a young girl, it seems unlikely to place such accusations against a man of her father's choice.

What are "cum manu" marriages?

In cum manu (with hand) marriages, wife is legally transferred to her husband's family. Her status in the family was same as if she was adopted. She could inherit property from her husband, but no longer from her own father. Women who married cum manu would be given the title materfamilias, if her husband was the paterfamilias of his family unit.

What are "sine manu" marriages?

Sine manu (without hand) marriages were more common, particularly in wealthy families. Bride remained under the legal control of her paterfamilias. This form of marriage was preferred as it made sure that the woman could be able to inherit from her parents and so kept the money within the immediate family. Sine manu marriages did not require a dowry, however, and so could have been less secure prospect for woman since the husband could easily divorce her.

What was a "coemptio" style wedding ceremony?

Bride was symbolically *sold to her new husband* by her paterfamilias. These ceremonies were recognisable because a man would hold a set of banking scales. The *bride's paterfamilias would present a single coin*, representing the dowry. Because these type of marriage was all about exchanging property, coemptio ceremonies were *only used for cum manu* marriages.

What was a "confarreatio" style wedding ceremony?

Used by the patrician class. The couple offered a ceremonial cake to Jupiter in presence of *Pontifex Maximus*. It was also only used for cum manu marriages.

What was a "usus" style wedding ceremony?

It was the most common one as it resulted in sine manu marriage. However, wife needed to spend 3 consecutive nights away from her husband; otherwise it would become a cum manu marriage.

Stages of usus ceremony

1) Bride-to-be makes sacrifices to the lares of her bulla which had protected her throughout her childhood.

2) Bride puts on her wedding dress with a knot woollen belt around her waist, which only her husband was allowed to unknot when the celebration was complete. She would also wear flame coloured veil and wear her hair in six separate locks, like the Vestal Virgins.

3) A lavish wedding feast is held at the bride's father's house.

4) The groom would pretend to dramatically kidnap the bride.

5) The celebrants would escort the couple throughout the streets to the groom's house, singing wedding hymns.

6) During the procession, bride would carry 3 coins: one dropped during procession as an offering to Janus, one for her husband to symbolise dowry and one for the lares of her new household.

7) When they arrive at the groom's house, the bride would wrap a wool around the door posts. She is carried across the threshold by her husband as (to this day) it is believed to be bad omen when the bride trips on her way to the house.