i need to memorize this so i can read the sun and the star as a treat. please PLEAASE

I JUST WANT MY FUNNY TREAT. I BOUGHT THIS BOOK 4 WEEKS AGO. AND I STILL HAVE NO GOTTEN TO READ IT I AM IN THE PITS OF DESPAIR RN DUDE

Puberty

Biological processes that change our appearances and make us capable of sexual reproduction. Includes all pysical changes that occur in adolescents.

What is regulated by the endocrine system that lead to physical changes?

Hormones.

No new hormones are produced during puberty and no new bodily systems develop at puberty.

Primary sex characteristics

Production of eggs/sperm and development of sex organs during puberty

Gonads

Glands that secrete sex hormones; testes and ovaries.

Secondary sex characteristics

The manifestation of sexual maturity at puberty, including the development of breasts, facial and body hair, and changes in the voice.

E.g. Growth of pubic/facial/body hair

Endocrine system

Produces, circulates, and regulates hormone levels in the body.

Receives instructions to increase/decrease circulating levels of hormones from the brain.

Hormones

Specialized substances secreted by endocrine glands

Glands

Organs that stimulate particular parts of the body to respond in specific ways

Set point

Physiological level that the body attempts to maintain

Puberty begins when this point changes.

Feedback loop

Cycles through which bodily functions regulate each other

ex: HPG axis set to maintain certain levels of androgens/estrogens

The Hormonal Feedback Loop

Hypothalamus

• It inhibits the pituitary gland unless sex hormone levels fall below a set point.

Pituitary gland

• When signaled by the hypothalamus, the pituitary signals the gonads to release more sex hormones.

Gonads

• When signaled by the pituitary gland, the gonads (testes in males, ovaries in females) release sex hormones

Sex hormones (androgens/estrogens)

• The hypothalamus will monitor the levels of sex hormones to maintain the current set point

Adrenarche

The maturation of the adrenal gland that takes place during adolescence.

Signals sexual maturation to others and may stimulate early sexual feelings (sexual attraction before puberty.)

What do adrenal glands control?

Cortisol, the hormone produced when a person is exposed to stress.

Pubertal changes may make us more responsive to stress.

Middle childhood triggers that reawaken the HPG axis and signal that the body is ready for puberty include:

• Internal clock/genetic factors

• Presence of mature sexual partners

• Sufficient nutritional resources

• Physically healthy enough to begin reproducing

Kisspeptin

Brain chemical believed to trigger the onset of puberty.

Leptin

A brain chemical produced by the fat cells that may play a role in the onset of puberty through stimulating kisspeptin

• More fat cells = Earlier puberty

Melatonin

A hormone secreted by the brain that contributes to puberty and that triggers the onset of puberty through its impact on kisspeptin

• More light exposure during childhood = earlier puberty

  • Puberty starts earlier among children who grow up closer to the equator or are exposed to more artificial light

Adolescent growth spurt

The dramatic increase in height and weight that occurs during puberty

• Average of 10 inches taller

• Gain nearly 1/3 of adult body weight

Epiphysis

The closing ends of the bones, terminate growth after the adolescent growth spurt has been completed.

What part of the body is first to accelerate in growth which cause a clumsy, gawky, out of proportion look.

Extremities (head, hands, and feet) first to accelerate in growth, followed by arms and legs, then torso and shoulders.

Boys finish adolescence with muscle to fat ratio of _____ and girls with ______

3:1 and 5:4

Tanner stages

A widely used system that describes the 5 stages of pubertal development where stage 1 is prepubertal and stage 5 is full maturity.

Menarche

When mensuration first occurs. Regular ovulation follows this by about 2 years.

Typical onset of puberty in developed countries is between ______ in girls and ______ in boys

8-13 and 9-14

Timing and tempo of puberty is largely _____________.

inherited

What are the two key environmental influences of puberty?

Nutrition and health

Secular trend

The tendency, over the past 2 centuries, for individuals to be larger in stature and to reach puberty earlier. Primarily because of improvements in health and nutrition

Reasons for secular trend:

• Improved nutritional conditions, better sanitation, better control of infectious diseases

• Increased rates of obesity (impacts leptin), exposure to human-made chemicals in cosmetics/food, increased exposure to artificial light (affects melatonin)

Why does stress speed the onset of puberty?

Being raised under stressful conditions may create uncertainty about future and stimulate body to mature faster.

Research that monitors daily emotions find that the majority of teenagers don’t report large mood swings because

Teenagers become less moody as they get older.

• Stressful life events play far greater role than hormonal changes.

Delayed phase preference

A pattern of sleep characterized by later sleep and wake times, which usually emerges during puberty.

Maturational deviance hypothesis

People who stand out experience more distress

• Early-maturing girls stand out

Developmental readiness hypothesis

Younger adolescents are less able to cope with challenge of puberty than older ones.

Cultural emphasis on desirability of thinness for females

Early maturers gain weight first

The interval between first sign of puberty and full maturation can be

1.5 years to 6 years

Ethnic differences in the timing and rate of pubertal maturation

Black females mature significantly earlier than Latinx girls, who mature earlier than white girls.

Struggles that early maturing girls will face

• Poorer self-image

• Higher rates of depression, eating disorders, and panic attacks

• More often victims of rumors, gossip, and sexual harassment

• Delinquency, drinking, drug use, school problems, early intercourse

Cognition

Refers to thinking.

Compared to children, adolescents are more sophisticated in their ability to think.

Metacognition

Thinking about thinking.

• Increased introspection - Thinking about our own emotions

• Increased self-consciousness - Thinking about how others think about us

Relativism

Seeing things as relative, not as absolute

How do children think in comparison to adolescents?

Children think about the here and now, while adolescents think about how things might have been.

• “if-then” thinking. See consequences of actions and plan ahead.

The second aspect of cognitive development in adolescence

Systemic, abstract thinking:

• Able to think about interpersonal relationships, politics, philosophy, religion, and mortality.

• Able to think about abstract concepts such as friendship, faith, democracy, fairness, and honesty.

Adolescent egocentrism

Extreme self-absorption, which may result in two types of problems for adolescents: Imaginary audience & the personal fable.

Imaginary audience

The belief, often brought on by the heightened self-consciousness of early adolescence, that everyone is watching and evaluating one’s behavior.

Personal fable

Adolescents’ belief that they are unique and therefore not subject to the rules that govern other people’s behavior. This can cause the dangerous belief that nothing bad can happen to them because they are special.

Adolescents develop the ability to view things from more than one aspect at a time which leads to:

• Developing far more complicated self-conceptions and relationships.

• They are able to describe themselves and others in more complex ways.

  • The ability to look at things in multiple dimensions which enables their ability to understand and enjoy sarcasm.

Adolescent relativism

The shift from seeing things as absolute to relative. Compared to children, adolescents are more likely to question others’ assertions and less likely to accept “facts” as absolute truths.

Cognitive-developmental view

A perspective based on the work of Piaget that takes a qualitative, stage-theory approach. Includes 4 stages:

1. Sensorimotor period

2. Preoperational period

3. Concrete operations

4. Formal operations

   (S.P.C.F)

Sensorimotor period (Piaget stage 1)

The first stage of cognitive development, spanning the period between birth and age 2. It includes learning how to coordinate the activities of the senses with motor activities.

Preoperational period (Piaget stage 2)

The second stage of cognitive development, spanning roughly ages 2-5. The child becomes capable of representing the world symbolically (language, play) but is still limited in ability to use mental operations.

Ex: A child pretends a stick is a sword or imitating the way their mom talks even when she’s not there.

Concrete operations (Piaget stage 3)

The third stage, spanning the period roughly between age 6 and early adolescence. Children learn to use mental operations but are limited to applying them to concrete, observable situations rather than hypothetical situations.

They are only able to pull from things they have seen or experienced in regard to the application of mental operations.

Formal operations

The fourth stage, spanning the period from early adolescence through adulthood. Abstract, logical reasoning.

Ex: Understanding the concept of “justice.”

Information processing perspective

A perspective on cognition that derives from the study of artificial intelligence and attempts to explain cognitive development in terms of specific components of the thinking process. 4 areas in which improvement has occurred during adolescence.

• Processing speed - Info processed faster

• Organization - Approaching problems with a strategy/plan.

• Attention

• Memory

Selective Attention

The process by which we focus on one thing while tuning out another.

Divided attention

The process of paying attention to two or more different things at the same time.

Autobiographical memory

The recall of personally meaningful events. Early memories stabilize sometime during early adolescence.

Reminiscence bump

The fact that experiences from adolescence are generally recalled more than experiences from other stages of life. Possibly reflecting better encoding or more emotion.

Plasticity

The capacity of the brain to change in response to experience.

Synaptic pruning

The process through which unnecessary connections between neurons are eliminated improves the efficiency of information processing. Makes the brain more efficient.
“Remodels” the adolescent brain.

Myelin

White matter that provides support and protection for neurons and includes a fatty substance called myelin, which surrounds the axons of certain neurons.

Myelination

The process through which the brain circuits are insulated with myelin, which improves the efficiency of information processing.

Prefrontal cortex (PFC)

The region of the brain most important for sophisticated thinking abilities such as planning, thinking ahead, weighing risks and rewards, and controlling impulses.

Limbic system

An area of the brain that plays an important role in the processing of emotional experience, social information, and reward and punishment.

Maturity gap

When adolescents’ intellectual capability reaches adult levels before they are emotionally and socially mature.

Social cognition

The aspect of cognition that concerns thinking about other people, interpersonal relationships, and social institutions.

Theory of mind

The ability to understand that others have beliefs, intentions, and knowledge that may be different from one’s own.

Social conventions

The norms that govern everyday behavior in social situations.

Behavioral decision theory

An approach to understanding adolescent risk-taking, in which behaviors are seen as the outcome of systematic decision-making processes.

Adolescents pay more attention to ______, whereas adults pay more attention to ________.

Rewards; Risks

Adolescent decision making is as good as adults’ when individuals are ____________________.

Tested under ideal conditions.

Sensation seeking

The pursuit of experiences that are novel or exciting

Positive risk taking

Risk taking that promotes healthy psychological development.

One aspect of brain maturation that is associated with increases in the speed of neural impulses and improvements in information transmission is ______________.

Myelination

Which of the following is one of the results of improvements in social cognition?

Adolescents become better able to interpret the feelings of others.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The space between what a learner can do without assistance and what a learner can do with guidance.

Age of majority

The designated age at which an individual is recognized as an adult.

Social redefinition

The process through which an individual’s position or status is redefined by society.

Social redefinition: Identity

Attaining adult status causes adolescents to feel more mature and to think more seriously about future work and family roles.

Social redefinition: Autonomy

Adult status leads to shifts in responsibility, independence, and freedom.

Social redefinition: Achievement

Adolescents must attain a certain age before becoming a full-time employee or leaving school of their own volition.

Social redefinition: Relationships

Young person faces new decisions about intimacy, dating, and marriage.

Statutory rape

Sex between two individuals, even when it is consensual, when at least one of the persons is below the legal age of consent.

Adolescence lasts longer today than ever before.

Individuals start puberty earlier and enter into adult roles of work and family later.

Emerging adulthood

A term for ages 18-25, caught between adolescence and adulthood.

5 Main features that characterize emerging adulthood

1. The exploration of possible identities before making enduring choices

2. Instability in work, romantic relationships, and living arrangements

3. A focus on oneself and independent functioning

4. The feeling of being caught between adolescence and adulthood

5. The sense that life holds many possibilities

Status offense

A violation of the law that pertains to minors but not adults (An adult can leave school or home without official penalties)

Juvenile justice system

A separate system of courts and related institutions was developed to handle juvenile crime and delinquency.

Criminal justice system

The system of courts and related institutions developed to handle adult crime.

Why do many experts believe that young defendants are incompetent to stand trial?

Due to cognitive and emotional immaturity.

Common practices in the process of social redefinition

• Real or symbolic separation from parents

• Emphasis on differences between the sexes

• Passing on information from the older generation

Initiation ceremony

The formal induction of a young person into adulthood

Scarification

The intentional creation of scars on some part or parts of the body, often as part of an initiation ceremony.

Differences in coming of age ceremonies between sexes:

For males, usually, the timing varies: At puberty, at a designated chronological age, or when the community decides they are ready.

For females, timing is usually linked to the onset of menarchy.

Continuous transition

Passages into adulthood in which adult roles and statuses are entered into gradually.

Discontinuous transitions

Passages into adulthood in which adult roles and statuses are entered into abruptly.

Reasons for why individuals are living with their parents for longer periods:

• Increased cost of housing and transportation

• Rise in drug and alcohol use is much less among young adults living at home rather than among most students who leave home for college.

Subjective social status

Where one believes they rank socioeconomically

Reasons why studying poverty as an issue is difficult:

• Difficult to separate neighborhood disadvantage and family disadvantage.

• Relocating poor families to affluent neighborhoods sometime negatively affects adolescents’ behaviors.

• Subjective social status.

• Parents in poor neighborhoods tend to monitor children more closely.

Collective efficacy

The extent to which neighbors trust each other, share common values, and count on each other to monitor the activities of youth in the community.

• Rates of teen pregnancy, school failure, mental health problems, and antisocial behavior are all higher in neighborhoods that have low levels of collective efficacy.

Impact of stress

The stresses associated with poverty undermine the quality of people’s relationships.

Across, all ethnic groups, poverty is associated with harsh, inconsistent, and punitive parenting which is linked to adolescent misbehavior.

Adolescents from poor neighborhoods are more likely to be exposed to chronic community violence.