AP EURO MP3 review

Crimean War

1853-1856; Russian prestige damaged by Ottoman sultan assigning care of holy places in Palestine to Roman Catholics; Russia wanted to extend control over Ottoman provinces of Moldavia/Walachia; used right to protect Orthodox Christians as pretext to occupy the provinces; Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia and so did France and Britain; Austria and Prussia remained neutral; both sides conducted the conflict ineptly

Sevastopol

main Russian fortress that fell after a long siege in September 1855 of Crimean War, causing Alexander II to sue for peace.

Treaty of Paris

Russia surrender territory near Danube and renounce claims to protect Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire; shattered the Concert of Europe

Hatti-sharif of Gülhane

decree issued by Ottomans to reorganize administration/military along European lines

Tanzimat

1839-1876; era of reform; liberalized economy, ended tax farming, eliminate corruption, civic equality to subjects regardless of religion, broke down the millet system; failed to achieve genuine political strength/stability; secularization of government; Balkan Wars demonstrated failure; constitutionalism failed; Young Turks eventually come to power (oh no)

Hatti-i Hümayun

1856; rights of non-Muslims equal obligations for military service, opportunity for state employment, admission to state schools; abolished torture, allowed foreigners to acquire property

romantic republicanism

secret republican societies like the Carbonari in Italy

Giuseppe Mazzini

most important nationalist leader in Europe; founded Young Italy Society to drive Austria from the peninsula

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Italian patriot who led insurrections along with Mazzini

Piedmont

most independent state on the Italian peninsula

Count Camillo Cavour

chosen by Victor Emmanuel I as PM in Piedmont; promoted free trade, railway construction, expansion of credit, agricultural improvement; material/economic bonds unite Italians, and French intervention needed; during Crimean War sent 10,000 troops to help France/Britain capture Sevastopol; raise Italian question at Paris conference and opposed Mazzini; represented moderate liberal/monarchist alternative

Nationalist Society

founded by Cavour to encourage unification; chapters in other Italian states

Felice Orsini

Italian who attempted to assassinate Napoleon III

Cavour and Napoleon III

met at Plombières in July 1858 to discuss, plotted war to defeat Austria; formal treaty in December 1858; when Austria demanded Piedmont demobilize, war provoked

Magenta, Solferino

two main battles in the war between Piedmont and France vs. Austria; Austria defeated

Villafranca

Napoleon III concluded peace with Austria; Piedmont received Lombardy, but Venetia still under Austrian control; Austria driven from Northern Italy; Parma, Modena, Tuscany, Romagna voted to unite with Piedmont

Garibaldi's Campaign

landed in Sicily with troops (1860), captured Palerma, controlled Kingdom of Naples (corrupt absolutist), but Cavour rushed troops south to confront him; conquered rest of Papal States; Garibaldi accepted Piedmontese domination

Naples, Sicily

vote in 1860 to join Italian kingdom

Savoy, Nice

French-speaking, Cavour cedes to France to gain favor

Victor Emmanuel II

March 1861 proclaimed King of Italy (Cavour soon died); conservative, constitutional monarchy; 2 house Parliament: senate appointed my king, deputies appointed by narrow franchise

transformismo

political system in Italy that allied conservative and liberals in support of the status quo through bribery/favors/seat that "transformed" political opponents into government supporters

Venetia

gained in 1866 for alliance with Prussia in Austro-Prussian War

Rome

annexed during Franco-Prussian War

Italia irredenta

"unredeemed Italy," reason for Italian support against Austria in WWI (wanted Trent, Trieste)

German unification

most important political development in Europe from 1848 to 1914

William I

assumed regency in Prussia after Frederick William IV adjudged insane; less idealistic, Prussian patriot; strengthen Prussian army, put in deadlock with Prussian Parliament

Otto von Bismarck

Junker; reactionary; Prussian rep to German Confederation, then an ambassador; mellowed into a conservative, strong monarchy/industrial base; became PM in 1862, moved against Parliament by declaring taxes could be collected/spent despite Parliament's refusal to vote; offended liberals, tried to unite Germany through conservatism to outflank liberals; kleindeutch

Schleswig-Holstein Problem

ruled by kings of Denmark; in 1863, Danish parliament moved to incorporate the duchies into Denmark, leading to Danish War

Danish War (1864)

Danish easily defeated by Prussia and Austria

Convention of Gastein

Prussia received Schleswig and Austria, Holstein; Bismarck gained Russia's support, persuaded Napoleon III to promise neutrality, promised Italy Venetia for support

Austro-Prussian War (1866)

Seven Weeks' War led to decisive defeat of Austria by Prussia at Königgrätz in Bohemia

Treaty of Prague

ended Seven Weeks' War; Austria lost Venetia, excluded them from German affairs

North German Confederation

Prussia annexed Hanover, Hesse Kassel, Nassan, Frankfurt; president of federation \= king of Prussia represented by chancellor (Bismarck); two houses

Bundesrat

The upper house, or Federal Council, of the German Diet (legislature); appointed by government of states

Reichstag

The popularly elected lower house of government of Germany; chosen by universal male suffrage but had little power

military monarchy

Germany became this after in 1866 the Prussian parliament retroactively approved military budget

Isabel III

corrupted Bourbon queen of Spain deposed by military coup in 1868

Prince Leopold

Hohenzollern; chosen to replace Isabel II and initially accepted Spanish crown with Prussian blessings

Vincent Benetti

ambassador sent by France to convince Leopold's father to renounce candidacy to Spanish throne, seek assurances from William I of Prussia that he would tolerate no future Spanish candidacy for Leopold

Ems telegram

released (edited version) by Bismarck to make it appear William (of Prussia) had insulted the French ambassador, goad France into war; France took bait

Franco-Prussian War

southern German states joined Prussia against France and defeated them at Battle of Sedan, where captured Napoleon III; Paris besieged, capitulated on January 28, 1871

German Empire

proclaimed in Hall of Mirrors at Palace of Versailles; William accepted title as German emperor; annexed Alsace and Lorraine; strongest state on continent

Napoleon III

reigned 1852-1870; coup in December 1851; controlled legislature, censored press, harassed dissidents, popular (authoritarian empire)--\> 1860 (liberal empire); free trade with Britain, freer debate, permitted labor unions, ministry; attempted many times to compensate for blatant foreign policy failures

2nd Empire

declared by Napoleon III; came to close with Battle of Sedan and capture of Napoleon III, who was allowed to go to England; the government was then proclaimed as a republic, moved to Bordeaux with Paris under siege

Third Republic

the republic that was established in France after the downfall of Napoleon III and ended with the German occupation of France during World War II; stronger than most suspected; survived scandals and challenges

Adolphe Thiers

National Assembly gave him executive power; negotiated Treaty of Frankfurt; first president of Third Republic

Paris Commune

new municipal government proclaimed March 28, 1871; attempted to administer Paris separately from rest of France; radicals, socialists, dominated by bourgeois members but roots in Blanqui's/Proudhon's anarchism; National Assembly surrounded city with army, broke through defenses and killed 20,000 inhabitants

House of Bourbon, House of Orléans

National Assembly monarchist majority divided between these two houses; Bourbon claimant, Chambord, had no children and agreed to accept Orléanist heir, but refused if tricolor flag, but no one wanted to return to white Bourbon flag

Marshal Patrice MacMahon

conservative army officer elected as president, eventually resigns after quarreling with C of D; National Assembly monarchist but unable to find a king, regularized political system; Chamber of Deputies elected by universal male suffrage Senate chosen indirectly, president elected by 2 legislative houses

General Georges Boulanger

unsuccessfully tried to impose a stronger executive authority in Third Republic

Dreyfus Affair

December 22, 1894, French military court found captain Alfred Dreyfus guilty of passing secret information to the German army (evidence later revealed to be forged; convenient Jewish scapegoat); sent to Devil's Island, prison in French Guiana; provoked near-hysterical public debate; anti-Dreyfus\=army, Catholic Church, conservatives, anti-Semitic; united leftists, radicals, republicans, socialists in support of Dreyfus; evidence of forged material came to light in 1898, officer responsible for forgeries committed suicide in jail; the president pardoned Dreyfus

Emile Zola

newspaper article titled "J'accuse" in support of Dreyfus, arguing that the government denied him due process; convicted of libel and went to England

Habsburg Empire

dynastic, absolutist, agrarian; ruled by Emperor Francis Joseph; Russia no longer helping preserve rule in Hungary

October Diploma

issued by Francis Joseph; federation among states/provinces, local diets; 1 imperial parliament; Magyars rejected

February Patent

bicameral imperial parliament, Reichsrat; upper chamber appointed by emperor, indirectly elected lower chamber; Magyars sent no delegate, but governed to 1918

Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867

transformed Habsburg Empire into dual monarchy Austria-Hungary; Francis Joseph crowned King of Hungary in Budapest in 1867; separate states only sharing monarch, army, foreign affairs, minister of foreign affairs, defense, finance; otherwise separate ministers, parliaments; meet once a year to discuss mutual interests, once every 10 years to renegotiate trade relationship; other national groups desired this settlement including Czechs, Ruthenians, Romanians, and Croatians; and opposed because it permitted German-speaking Austrians and Hungarians to dominate

Hungary

Magyar nation under Habsburg empire

trialism

triple monarchy favored by Czechs; Francis Joseph willing to consider, but Magyars vetoed fearing concessions to own subjects; Germans of Bohemia feared Czech language imposition

obstructionism

occurred in Austrian-Hungarian parliament after in 1897, Francis Joseph gave Czechs/Germans equality of language, which upset Germans; some started playing instruments in Parliament

universal male suffrage in Austria-Hungary

instituted by Francis Joseph in 1907, but constitutionalism dead in Austria; flourished in Hungary but only because Magyars had political supremacy (except over Croatia which had considerable autonomy)

racial thinking

grew in Austria-Hungary around this time; genetic basis for ethnicity; nationalism increased, language most important with increased education

Alexander II

Tsar-Liberator; never popular; instituted most extreme restructuring of Russian administration/society since Peter the Great; ; in 1866, attempt on tsar's life --\> police state --\> repression --\> radical groups --\> more reactionary autocracy

abolition of serfdom in Russia

it was economically inefficient, caused threat of revolt, condemned in 19th century moral opinion (only involuntary servitude still in Russia, Brazil, parts of US); February 1861 --\> law disappointment as land did not accompany freedom; personal right to marry without permission; right to buy/sell property, sue in court, pursue trades; no free title to land --\> pay over 49 years + interest; poor harvests, many fell behind in debt which was only canceled in 1906

reform of local government and judicial systems in Russia

authority of village communes replaced landlord; nobility --\> local administration through provincial/county zemstros (councils0 formed 1864 to oversee bridge/road repair, education, agricultural improvement; underfunded, ineffective; implemented some Western European legal principles like equality before law, impartial hearings, uniform procedure, judicial independence, trial by jury (but not offenses involving press)

military reform in Russia

lowered service from 25 to 15 years, relaxed discipline; 1874, lowered to 6 years active duty, 9 years reserves; all males \> 20

Polish Rebellion of 1863

Polish rebels attempted to overthrow Russian dominance, suppressed by Russian army; Alexander II "Russify" Poland, emancipate serfs to punish nobility, treat as Russian province

Alexander Herzen

exiled critic from Russia who called for reforms in "The Bell," a London newspaper

populism

students using Herzen's ideas; social revolution based on communal life of Russian peasants; chief radical society \= Land and Freedom; students went to countryside, peasants turned over to police; winter 1877-1878, over 200 students tried; tsar refused to pardon those with heavier sentences; revolutionaries decided to attack regime directly

Vera Zasulich

January 1878, attempted to assassinate brutal military governor of St. Petersburg, acquitted

Land and Freedom

revolutionary group that split in 1879 into one part that attempted to educate peasants (dissolved), and another part trying to overthrow autocracy called the People's Will

Assassination of Alexander II

March 1, 1881; bomb; 4 men, 2 women sentenced to death

Alexander III

became tsar after Alexander II; autocratic, oppressive; slight improvements to factory conditions; roll back reforms; centralized bureaucracy \> zemstros; increased secret police and censorship

Nicholas II

last tsar of Russia after Alexander II; discovered that autocracy could not survive 20th century

Great Britain

confident liberal state characterized by competition and individualism

John Bright

led Reform League, advocated for parliamentary action to expand the franchise

Lord Russell

led liberal ministry to introduce reform bill but defeated by traditional conservatives/antidemocratic liberals

Lord Derby

conservative replaced Lord Russell when he resigned

Benjamin Disraeli

led conservative ministry in House of Commons and introduced Second Reform Act

Second Reform Act (1867)

expanded electorate beyond what liberals proposed; 1,430,000 voters to 2,470,000; "embrace democracy," conservatives get credit for inevitable reform

William Gladstone

liberal, new Prime Minister in 1868; administration represented the culmination of classical British liberalism; 1870: competitive examinations for civil service replaced patronage; 1871: purchase of officers' commissions for army abolished

Ballot Act of 1872

voting by secret ballot (Gladstone)

Education Act of 1870

most momentous under Gladstone; introduced government as having responsibility for establishing/running elementary schools

Election of 1874

Disraeli elected as Liberals are split over religion, education, and sale of alcohol

Richard Cross

Disraeli's home secretary responsible for most social legislation of Disraeli's ministry, including new protection to trade unions, can raise picket lines

Public Health Act of 1875

consolidated legislation on sanitation, duty of state to interfere with private property to protect health

Artisan Dwelling Act of 1875

government involved in housing for working class

3rd Reform Act

under second Gladstone ministry; extended vote to male farm workers; 1884

home rule

Irish control of Irish government

Gladstone and Ireland

1869: disestablish Church of Ireland (Irish branch of Anglican Church), not have to pay taxes to church; land act in 1870 providing compensation to evicted Irish tenant farmers, loans to those wishing to purchase their land

Irish Land League

intense agitation, intimidation of Protestant/English landlords

Coercion Act

restore law and order to Ireland after 2nd law in 1885 strengthening tenant rights (still Gladstone)

Charles Stewart Parnell

led Irish movement for just land settlement; organized 85 Irish members in party that voted as bloc; balance of power between liberals/conservatives

Liberal Unionists

group that joined with conservatives to defeat home rule

Lord Salisbury

led conservative ministry/reconcile issue through public works/administrative reform, only marginal success; conservatives sponsored land act in 1903, final transfer of land to tenant ownership; by this time, Ireland had become country of small farms

Home Rule Bill

proposed in 1912, had to pass three times, last in 1914, implementation suspended after WWI

Labor Party

The British party that replaced the Liberals in the early twentieth century and championed greater social equality for the working classes through the efforts of labor unions.

nationalism

single most powerful European political ideology of 19th/early 20th centuries; nation comprised of people joined by bonds of common language, customs, culture, history, should be administered by same government; political/ethnic boundaries coincide; challenged domestic/international order of Vienna sentiment

nationhood

associated with groups large enough to support a viable economy, significant cultural history, cultural elite to nourish/spread national language, military capacity to conquer other people/protect independence

Irish nationalists

Ireland brought under direct rule of England in 1800, abolishing separate Irish Parliament, led to this

German nationalists

challenged multinational structure of Austrian Empire