LABA book notes exam #2

operant behaviors

behaviors that are influenced by their consequences

class of emitted responses that result in certain consequences which then affect the future probability or strength of those responses

operant conditioning

effect of consequences on behavior, response operated on the environment to produce a consequence; aka instrumental conditioning

edwin thorndike

hungry cat in puzzle box, needs to step on treadle to open gate, responses that worked were gradually strengthened, those that didn’t were gradually weakened

law of effect

behaviors leading to a satisfying state of affairs are strengthened or “stamped in” while behaviors that lead to an unsatisfying/annoying state of affairs are weakened or “stamped out”

extent to which consequences of behaviors are satisfying or annoying determine whether the behavior will be repeated

burrhus frederic skinner

skinner box: rat is able to earn food pellets by pressing a lever/bar

“free operant” prodceure-rat freely responds with a particular behavior for food and it may do so at any rate; experimenter controls contingencies in box; animal is not forced to respond at a particular time

two types of behaviors: involuntary reflexive-type behaviors (classical behaviors) and voluntary behaviors controlled by the consequences (operant behaviors)

operant conditioning

future probability of a behavior is affected by its consequences, similar to natural selection

3 components:

1) a response that produces a certain consequence

2) the consequence that serves to either increase or decrease the probability of the response that preceded it

3) a discriminative stimulus that precedes the response and signals that a certain consequence is now available

operants

operant responses; behaviors in question; emitted by the organism (more voluntary, flexible quality than elicited behavior)

class of responses (operant behavior)

all responses in the class are capable of producing the consequence no matter the topography

easier to predict the occurrence of a class of responses than it is to predict the exact response

reinforcer

follows a behavior, future probability of the event increases, formally defined by effect on behavior

S^R = reinforcing stimulus

punisher

follows a behavior, future probability of the event decreases, formally defined by effect on behavior, not the only way of weakening a behavior (extinction)

S^P=punishing stimulus

reinforcement/punishment

process/procedure by which certain consequences change the strength of a behavior

discriminative stimulus

S^D

sets occasion for behavior; increases probability R will occur; person/animal emits behavior in presence of S^D

three term contingency

S^D, operant behavior, and punisher/reinforcer

antecedent, behavior, consequence

notice something, do something, get something

discriminative stimulus for punishment

stimulus that signals a response will be punished

S^ (Dp)

may signal occurrence of extinction

response → punisher

contingency of punishment

response → reinforcer

contingency of reinforcement

positive

add (positive contigency, S^R+ or S^P+)

negative

remove (negative contingency, S^R- or S^P-)

positive reinforcement

presentation of a stimulus following a response which leads to an increase in the future strength of that response

rat, lever, food

negative reinforcement

removal of stimulus following a response, which leads to an increase in future strength of that response

escape behavior

termination of an aversive stimulus

avoidance behavior

occurs before aversive stimulus is presented and prevents its delivery

i.e. open umbrella before stepping into rainp

positive punishment

presentation of a stimulus (unpleasant/aversive) following a response that leads to decrease in future strength of that response

negative punishment

removal of a stimulus (pleasant/rewarding) following a response, leading to the decrease in the future strength of the response

reduction in one person’s behavior as a result of punishment can negatively reinforce behavior of a person who implemented the punishment

more immediate reinforcer (weaker/stronger) the effect on behavior

stronger

primary reinforcer

aka unconditioned reinforcer, event that’s innately reinforcing, things we are born to like rather than learn to like i.e. food, water, proper temperature, sexual contact

effectiveness is tied to state of deprivation

secondary reinforcer

aka conditioned reinforcer, event that’s reinforcing because it has been associated with another reinforcer, events we learned to like because they have become associated with other things we like

generalized reinforcer

aka generalized secondary reinforcer, type of secondary reinforcer that’s been associated with several other reinforcers (i.e. money → food, clothes, entertainment) i.e. tokens or tickets earned in classrooms to be exchanged for prizes later

learned industriousness theory

hard work can become a secondary reinforcer

intrinsic reinforcement

reinforcer provided by the mere act of performing the behavior; i.e. ice skating, party w/ friends, working hard

extrinsic reinforcement

reinforcement provided by some consequence that’s external to the behavior i.e. studying to pass an exam

candy intrinsic or extrinsic for the behaviors of being quiet and eating candy

extrinsic reinforcer for behavior of being quiet

intrinsic reinforcer of behavior of eating candy

cameron and pierce

extrinsic rewards have little/no effect on intrinsic motivation

only do when the reward is expected, tangible, and given for simply performing the activity

natural reinforcer

reinforcers usually provided for a certain behavior, expected consequence of behavior within that setting; trying to use as much as possible in behaviorism, produce more efficient behavior patterns

i.e. money with selling merchandise

contrived/artificial reinforcers

reinforcers that have been deliberately arranged to modify a behavior, may be the reward of studying with TV

hallmark of behaviorism

shaping

gradual creation of new behavior through reinforcement of successive approximations to that behavior i.e. food when rat stands near lever, now only when facing lever, now only when paw is on lever etc

schedule of reinforcement

response requirement that must be met to obtain reinforcement; schedule indicates what exactly needs to be done for the reinforcement to be delivered

i.e. every lever press→ food or multiple lever presses→ food

continuous reinforcement schedule

each specified response in reinforced, aka CRF;

especially useful when behavior is first being shaped/strengthened

i.e. press lever → food

roll over on command → food

intermittent/partial reinforcement schedule

only some responses are reinforced; characteristic response pattern is the stable pattern that emerges once the organism has had considerable exposure to the schedule (steady state behaviors)

i.e. only some lever pressing results in food

fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval and variable interval

fixed ratio schedule

FR, reinforcement is contingent upon a fixed, predictable number

FR 5 means rat presses lever 5 times to get food

FR 1=CRF

generally produces a high rate of response along with a short pause (post-reinforcement pause) following the attainment of each reinforcer; break-and-run pattern

high ratio requirements produce a longer post-reinforcement pause

FR100 pause length > FR 30 pause length >FR 2 pause length

low to high ratio requirement needs to be done gradually

dense/rich fixed ratio schedule

reinforcer is easily obtained i.e. FR 5

lean fixed ratio schedule

reinforcer is difficult to obtain i.e. FR 100

ratio strain

breakdown in behavior because too rushed low to high ratio disruption in responding due to an overly demanding response requirement, burnout is an example of this

variable ratio schedule

VR schedule, reinforcement is contingent upon a varying, unpredictable number of responses; generally produce a high and steady rate of response, with little or no post-reinforcement pause; helps account for persistence with which some people display maladaptive behaviors i.e. gambling, or facilitating development of an abusive relationship

VR 5=avg of 5 lever presses for food pellet, number of responses is between 1 and 10

i.e. shots on goal

fixed interval schedule

FI schedule; reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a fixed, predictable period of time; produces a scalloped (upwardly curved) pattern of responding, consisting of a post-reinforcement pause followed by a gradually increasing rate of response as the interval draws to a close

FI 30 sec= first lever press after a 30-second interval gets a food pellet and have to wait another 30 seconds

variable interval schedules

VI schedule; reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a varying, unpredictable period of time; usually produce a moderate, steady rate of response, often with little or no post-reinforcement pause; relatively steady rate gets the reinforcer as soon as it becomes available; used to investigate other aspects of operant conditioning i.e. choice between alternative sources of reinforcement

i.e. VI 30 seconds=first lever press after an average interval of 30 seconds will result in a food pellet (between 1 and 60)

which partial reinforcement schedules produce higher rates of response

FR and VR (responses contingent-need ratio of responses before reinforcement)

FI leads to an increasing response rate and VI has a moderate response rate

which partial reinforcement schedules produce post-reinforcement pause

FR and FI

because VI and VR have the possibility of getting the reinforcer right after just getting one

duration schedule

reinforcement is contingent on performing a behavior continuously through a period of time

fixed duration schedule

FD, behavior must be performed continuously for a fixed predictable period of time

i.e. FD 60 seconds schedule: rat runs on wheel for 60s to earn food

variable duration schedule

VD, behavior must be performed continuously for a varying, unpredictable period of time

i.e. VD 60 seconds schedule: time varies between 1s and 120s

compare duration schedules to FR, VR, FI, VI

they are imprecise because you don’t know what was done to achieve the reinforcer

for example VD and FD rat running on wheel might be a walk on wheel or a sprint on wheel and they both get the reinforcer

response rate schedule

reinforcement is directly contingent on the organisms rate of response

differential reinforcement

one type of response is reinforced and another is not

differential reinforcement of high rates

DRH; reinforcement is contingent upon emitting at least a certain number of responses in a certain period of time; responding at a fast rate gets reinforcement, low rate doesn’t (running/swimming/assembly line)

differential response of low rates

DRL, minimum amount of time must pass between each response before the reinforcer will be delivered; reinforcement provided for responding at a lower rate; responses during interval of waiting prevents reinforcement from occurring-responding during an interval must not occur in order for a response following interval to produce a reinforcer

i.e. rat gets food pellet if it waits at least 10 seconds between lever presses

differential reinforcement of paced responding

DRP; reinforcements contingent upon emitting a series of responses at a set rate-neither too fast nor too slow

i.e. reinforcer if 10 consecutive responses separated by 1.5-2.5 seconds

i.e. music, non competitive running/swimming

non-contingent schedule of reinforcement

reinforcer is delivered independently of any response; fixed time or variable time

aka response-independent schedules

can reduce frequency of maladaptive behaviors i.e. attention → no more acting out for attention

unconditional positive regard: love, respect and acceptance from significant others no matter the behavior (non-contingent social reinforcement)

raising kids: non-contingent reinforcement to build a healthy base and a contingent reinforcement to shape behaviors, maximize skill development and prevent development of passivity

fixed time schedule

FT, reinforcer is delivered following a fixed, predictable period of time, regardless of organisms’s behavior

variable time schedule

VT, reinforcer is delivered following a varying, unpredictable, period of time regardless of an organisms’s behavior

i.e. VT-30-seconds reinforcer after average interval of 30s (between 1s and 60s)

these may account for some forms of superstitious behavior i.e. oh I press this button and FT and I get food? button must cause food; gamblers or professional athletes

can develop as by-products of contingent reinforcement for other behavior i.e. firm handshake → respect? no, just handshake → respect

VI + non-contingent schedule affects rate of response how

decreases i.e. people on welfare being less inclined to look for work

complex schedule

combination of two or more simple schedules

conjunctive schedules

type of complex schedule in which requirements of two or more simple schedules must be met before a reinforcer is delivered

FI 2 min FR 100 schedule → reinforcement is contingent upon completing 100 lever presses plus at least one lever press following a 2 min interval

i.e. wage=certain number of hours plus doing a sufficient amount of work so you won’t be fired

adjusting schedules

response requirement changes as a function of the organism’s performance while responding for the previous reinforcer; shaping uses this

FR 100 if rat completes all 100 responses within a 5 minute interval, we increase the requirement to 110 responses (FR 110)

poor performance leads to a decreased amount of material students need to learn

chained schedule

consists of a sequence of two or more simple schedules, each of which has it’s own S^D and the last of which results in a terminal reinforcer; must work through a series of component schedules to obtain saught-after reinforcer; 2 component schedules must be completed in a particular order

long chains result in terminal reinforcer being distant, so behavior is easily disrupted during early part of chain

VR 20 schedule in a green key → FI 10 second schedule on red key → terminal reinforcer of food

goal-gradient effect

increase in strength and/or efficiency of responding as one draws near the goal; rat runs faster and makes fewer wrong turns near goal box, or humans needing to pee run faster near bathroom

backward chaining

train final link first then initial link last

i.e. red key: food, green key: red key

drive reduction theory

hull, event is reinforcing to the extent that it is associated with reduction in some type of physiological drive; food deprivation produces hunger drive which propels animal to seek out food; behavior preceding drive-reduction is strengthened

problem: some reinforcers don’t seem to be associated with drive reduction theory

incentive motivation

motivation derived from some property of the reinforcer as opposed to an interval drive state; playing video games for the fun of it

premack principle

high-probability behavior can be used to reinforce a low-probability behavior, sequence of behavior being reinforced and behavior that is the reinforcer; need to know relative probabilities of 2 behaviors before we can judge whether one will be an effective reinforcer for the other; useful for autism

i.e. lever pressing is reinforced by the act of eating food (behavior) not just food (stimulus)

rat wants food: eating food (high probability behavior) has a higher likelihood of occurrence than running in wheel (low probability behavior) so you can train target behavior (running in wheel-LPB) to get consequence of eating food-HPB

work (LBP) then play (HPB)

response deprivation hypothesis

behavior can serve as a reinforcer when access to the behavior is restricted and the frequency thereby falls below its preferred level of occurrence (baseline level when animal can freely engage in that activity); explains why contingencies of reinforcement are effective (i.e. study or no comic book reading)

i.e. rat loves running for 1 hour, only give it 15 mins, rat will be willing to work for running

behavior bliss point approach

an organism with free access to alternative activities will distribute its behavior in such way as to maximize overall reinforcement

i.e. rat can run and explore maze (freely available)

rat runs 1 hour and explores 2 hours=optimal reinforcement available from those 2 activities

assumes organisms attempt to distribute behavior as to maximize overall reinforcement

extinction

nonreinforcement of a previously reinforced response, the result of which is a decrease in strength of that response

procedure: nonreinforcement

process: resultant decrease in response strength

ceases entirely= extinguished

ceases not yet entirely=partially extinguished

side effects of extinction

extinction burst, increase in variability, emotional behavior, aggression, resurgence and depression

extinction burst

temporarily increase in frequency and intensity of responding when extinction is first implemented; FR 4 schedule → extinction → rat initially reacts to pressing lever both more rapidly and more forceful (thinking this will get them reinforcer)

increase in variability

topography changes

emotional behavior

agitation, upset, frustration

aggression

extinction induced aggression, frustration-induced aggression

resurgence

reappearance during extinction of other behaviors that have once been effective in obtaining reinforcement (regression-immature behavior in reaction to frustration or conflict)

depression

low activity, loss of reinforcement

resistance to extinction

extent to which responding persists after an extinction procedure has been implemented; very persistence response is high resistance to extinction; response that disappears quickly is said to have low resistance to extinction

partial reinforcement effect

behavior that has been maintained on an intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement extinguish more slowly than behavior that has been maintained and a continuous schedule

takes longer to extinguish VR schedule-resistence is stronger, the less frequent the reinforcer the longer it takes to discover the reinforcement is no longer available

helps account for annoying or maladaptive behaviors difficult to eliminate

more reinforcers an individual has received for behavior (less/more) resistance to extinction

more

large magnitude leads to (less/more) resistance to extinction

more

greater level of deprivation (less/more) resistance to extinction

greater

greater number of exposures to extinction (slower/faster) behavior will extinguish during subsequent exposures

faster

spontaneous recovery

reappearance of an extinguished response following a rest period after extinction; less levels as time goes on; weaker response; form of discriminative stimuli (start of session)

differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)

reinforcement of any behavior other than the target behavior that is being extinguished; more effective than simple extinction procedures because target behavior is weakened by lack of reinforcement for that behavior but reinforcement for another behavior

functional communication training

child is taught to communicate needs in a socially appropriate manner, frequency of innapropriate behavior is likely to decrease

stimulus control

presence of a discriminative stimulus readily affects probability of behavior

i.e. at a red light we stop, at a green we proceed

if someone smiles at us we smile back

stimulus generalization

tendency for operant response to be emitted in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to the discriminative stimulus

more similar, stronger response

generalization gradient

tendency to generalize across different stimuli, strength of responding in the presence of stimuli that are similar to the discrimination stimulus and that can vary along a continuum; steep gradient means that the rate of responding drops sharply as stimuli become increasingly different from the discriminatory stimulus, flat gradient means rate drops gradually and there is more generalization

stimulus discrimination

tendency for an operant response to be emitted more in the presence of one stimuli than another

more generalization=less discrimination

discrimination training

reinforcement of responding in the presence of discriminative stimulus and not another stimulus (called the discriminative stimulus for extinction which is denoted S superscript triangle)

peak shift effect

peak of a generalization gradient following discrimination training will shift from a discriminative stimulus to a stimulus further removed from the discriminative stimulus for extinction

multiple schedule

two or more independent schedules presented in sequence, each resulting in reinforcement and having distinctive discriminative stimuli

completion of each component schedule results in reinforcer, stimulus control is demonstrated when the subject responds differently in the presence of the discriminative stimulus associated with the different schedules

behavioral contrast

change in the rate of reinforcement of one component of a multiple schedule produces an opposing change in the rate of response of another component

rate of reinforcement on one compound changes in one direction, rate of response on another component changes in opposite direction

negative contrast effect

increase in rate of reinforcement on one component produces a decrease in the rate of response on the other component; i.e. VI-60s to VI-30s

positive contrast effect

decrease in rate of reinforcement on one component results in an increased rate of response on the other component; i.e. VI 60-s to VI 120-s

anticipatory contrast

rate of response varies inversely with upcoming/anticipated change in the rate of reinforcement; respond more vigorously for reinforcement when it is still available